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El Mahmoudi N, Laurent C, Péricat D, Watabe I, Lapotre A, Jacob PY, Tonetto A, Tighilet B, Sargolini F. Long-lasting spatial memory deficits and impaired hippocampal plasticity following unilateral vestibular loss. Prog Neurobiol 2023; 223:102403. [PMID: 36821981 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2023.102403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2022] [Revised: 11/25/2022] [Accepted: 01/04/2023] [Indexed: 02/23/2023]
Abstract
Unilateral vestibular loss (UVL) induces a characteristic vestibular syndrome composed of various posturo-locomotor, oculomotor, vegetative and perceptivo-cognitive symptoms. Functional deficits are progressively recovered over time during vestibular compensation, that is supported by the expression of multiscale plasticity mechanisms. While the dynamic of post-UVL posturo-locomotor and oculomotor deficits is well characterized, the expression over time of the cognitive deficits, and in particular spatial memory deficits, is still debated. In this study we aimed at investigating spatial memory deficits and their recovery in a rat model of unilateral vestibular neurectomy (UVN), using a wide spectrum of behavioral tasks. In parallel, we analyzed markers of hippocampal plasticity involved in learning and memory. Our results indicate the UVN affects all domains of spatial memory, from working memory to reference memory and object-in-place recognition. These deficits are associated with long-lasting impaired plasticity in the ipsilesional hippocampus. These results highlight the crucial role of symmetrical vestibular information in spatial memory and contribute to a better understanding of the cognitive disorders observed in vestibular patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada El Mahmoudi
- Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, LNC UMR 7291, Centre Saint Charles, Case C; 3 Place Victor Hugo, 13331, Marseille Cedex 03, France.
| | - Célia Laurent
- Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, LNC UMR 7291, Centre Saint Charles, Case C; 3 Place Victor Hugo, 13331, Marseille Cedex 03, France
| | - David Péricat
- Université de Toulouse Paul Sabatier -CNRS, Institut de pharmacologie et de biologie structurale, Toulouse, France
| | - Isabelle Watabe
- Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, LNC UMR 7291, Centre Saint Charles, Case C; 3 Place Victor Hugo, 13331, Marseille Cedex 03, France
| | - Agnès Lapotre
- Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, LNC UMR 7291, Centre Saint Charles, Case C; 3 Place Victor Hugo, 13331, Marseille Cedex 03, France
| | - Pierre-Yves Jacob
- Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, LNC UMR 7291, Centre Saint Charles, Case C; 3 Place Victor Hugo, 13331, Marseille Cedex 03, France
| | - Alain Tonetto
- Aix Marseille Université-CNRS, Centrale Marseille, FSCM (FR 1739), PRATIM, F-13397 Marseille, France
| | - Brahim Tighilet
- Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, LNC UMR 7291, Centre Saint Charles, Case C; 3 Place Victor Hugo, 13331, Marseille Cedex 03, France
| | - Francesca Sargolini
- Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, Laboratoire de Neurosciences Cognitives, LNC UMR 7291, Centre Saint Charles, Case C; 3 Place Victor Hugo, 13331, Marseille Cedex 03, France.
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Nguyen TT, Nam GS, Han GC, Le C, Oh SY. The Effect of Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation on Visuospatial Cognition in an Incomplete Bilateral Vestibular Deafferentation Mouse Model. Front Neurol 2022; 13:857736. [PMID: 35370874 PMCID: PMC8971559 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2022.857736] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2022] [Accepted: 02/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
ObjectivesTo evaluate the efficacy of galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) for recovering from the locomotor and spatial memory deficits of a murine bilateral vestibular deafferentation (BVD) model.MethodsMale C57BL/6 mice (n = 36) were assigned to three groups: bilateral labyrinthectomy with (BVD_GVS group) and without (BVD_non-GVS group) the GVS intervention, and a control group with the sham operation. We used the open field and Y maze, and Morris water maze (MWM) tests to assess locomotor and visuospatial cognitive performance before (baseline) and 3, 7, and 14 days after surgical bilateral labyrinthectomy. For the GVS group, a sinusoidal current at the frequency at 1 Hz and amplitude 0.1 mA was delivered for 30 min daily from the postoperative day (POD) 0 to 4 via electrodes inserted subcutaneously close to both the bony labyrinths.ResultsShort-term spatial memory was significantly impaired in bilaterally labyrinthectomized mice (BVD_non-GVS group), as reflected by decreased spontaneous alternation performance in the place recognition test and time spent in the novel arm and increased same arm return in the Y-maze test, compared with the control. Long-term spatial memory was also impaired, as indicated by a longer escape latency in the hidden platform trial and a lower percentage of time spent in the target quadrant in the probe trial of the MWM. GVS application significantly accelerated the recovery of locomotion and short-term and long-term spatial memory deficits in the BVD mice.ConclusionsOur data demonstrate that locomotion, short-term, and long-term (at least 2 weeks) spatial memory were impaired in BVD mice. The early administration of sinusoidal GVS accelerated the recovery of those locomotion and spatial memory deficiencies. GVS could be applied to patients with BVD to improve their locomotion and vestibular cognitive functioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanh Tin Nguyen
- Jeonbuk National University College of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital and School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea
- Department of Pharmacology, Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
| | - Gi-Sung Nam
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital and School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Chosun University College of Medicine, Gwangju, South Korea
| | - Gyu Cheol Han
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Chuyen Le
- Department of Pharmacology, Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
- Department of General-Endocrinology and Internal Medicine, Hue University Hospital, Hue, Vietnam
- *Correspondence: Chuyen Le ;
| | - Sun-Young Oh
- Jeonbuk National University College of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital and School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea
- Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Biomedical Research Institute of Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, South Korea
- Sun-Young Oh
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Nguyen TT, Nam GS, Kang JJ, Han GC, Kim JS, Dieterich M, Oh SY. The Differential Effects of Acute Right- vs. Left-Sided Vestibular Deafferentation on Spatial Cognition in Unilateral Labyrinthectomized Mice. Front Neurol 2021; 12:789487. [PMID: 34956067 PMCID: PMC8692718 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.789487] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 10/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
This study aimed to investigate the disparity in locomotor and spatial memory deficits caused by left- or right-sided unilateral vestibular deafferentation (UVD) using a mouse model of unilateral labyrinthectomy (UL) and to examine the effects of galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) on the deficits over 14 days. Five experimental groups were established: the left-sided and right-sided UL (Lt.-UL and Rt.-UL) groups, left-sided and right-sided UL with bipolar GVS with the cathode on the lesion side (Lt.-GVS and Rt.-GVS) groups, and a control group with sham surgery. We assessed the locomotor and cognitive-behavioral functions using the open field (OF), Y maze, and Morris water maze (MWM) tests before (baseline) and 3, 7, and 14 days after surgical UL in each group. On postoperative day (POD) 3, locomotion and spatial working memory were more impaired in the Lt.-UL group compared with the Rt.-UL group (p < 0.01, Tamhane test). On POD 7, there was a substantial difference between the groups; the locomotion and spatial navigation of the Lt.-UL group recovered significantly more slowly compared with those of the Rt.-UL group. Although the differences in the short-term spatial cognition and motor coordination were resolved by POD 14, the long-term spatial navigation deficits assessed by the MWM were significantly worse in the Lt.-UL group compared with the Rt.-UL group. GVS intervention accelerated the vestibular compensation in both the Lt.-GVS and Rt.-GVS groups in terms of improvement of locomotion and spatial cognition. The current data imply that right- and left-sided UVD impair spatial cognition and locomotion differently and result in different compensatory patterns. Sequential bipolar GVS when the cathode (stimulating) was assigned to the lesion side accelerated recovery for UVD-induced spatial cognition, which may have implications for managing the patients with spatial cognitive impairment, especially that induced by unilateral peripheral vestibular damage on the dominant side.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanh Tin Nguyen
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
| | - Gi-Sung Nam
- Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Chosun University College of Medicine, Gwangju, South Korea.,Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, South Korea
| | - Jin-Ju Kang
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, South Korea
| | - Gyu Cheol Han
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Ji-Soo Kim
- Department of Neurology, Seoul National University Bundang Hospital & School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Marianne Dieterich
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders-IFB, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Sun-Young Oh
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, South Korea
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Nguyen TT, Nam GS, Kang JJ, Han GC, Kim JS, Dieterich M, Oh SY. Galvanic Vestibular Stimulation Improves Spatial Cognition After Unilateral Labyrinthectomy in Mice. Front Neurol 2021; 12:716795. [PMID: 34393985 PMCID: PMC8358680 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.716795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2021] [Accepted: 06/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Objectives: To investigate the deficits of spatial memory and navigation from unilateral vestibular deafferentation (UVD) and to determine the efficacy of galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) for recovery from these deficits using a mouse model of unilateral labyrinthectomy (UL). Methods: Thirty-six male C57BL/6 mice were allocated into three groups that comprise a control group and two experimental groups, UVD with (GVS group) and without GVS intervention (non-GVS group). In the experimental groups, we assessed the locomotor and cognitive behavioral function before (baseline) and 3, 7, and 14 days after surgical UL, using the open field (OF), Y maze, and Morris water maze (MWM) tests. In the GVS group, the stimulations were applied for 30 min daily from postoperative day (POD) 0–4 via the electrodes inserted subcutaneously close to both bony labyrinths. Results: Locomotion and spatial cognition were significantly impaired in the mice with UVD non-GVS group compared to the control group. GVS significantly accelerated recovery of locomotion compared to the control and non-GVS groups on PODs 3 (p < 0.001) and 7 (p < 0.05, Kruskal–Wallis and Mann–Whitney U tests) in the OF and Y maze tests. The mice in the GVS group were better in spatial working memory assessed with spontaneous alternation performance and spatial reference memory assessed with place recognition during the Y maze test than those in the non-GVS group on POD 3 (p < 0.001). In addition, the recovery of long-term spatial navigation deficits during the MWM, as indicated by the escape latency and the probe trial, was significantly better in the GVS group than in the non-GVS group 2 weeks after UVD (p < 0.01). Conclusions: UVD impairs spatial memory, navigation, and motor coordination. GVS accelerated recoveries in short- and long-term spatial memory and navigation, as well as locomotor function in mice with UVD, and may be applied to the patients with acute unilateral vestibular failure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thanh Tin Nguyen
- Jeonbuk National University College of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Department of Pharmacology, Hue University of Medicine and Pharmacy, Hue University, Hue, Vietnam
| | - Gi-Sung Nam
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Department of Otorhinolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Chosun University College of Medicine, Kwangju, South Korea
| | - Jin-Ju Kang
- Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, South Korea
| | - Gyu Cheol Han
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Graduate School of Medicine, Gachon University of Medicine and Science, Incheon, South Korea
| | - Ji-Soo Kim
- Department of Neurology, Seoul National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Seoul, South Korea
| | - Marianne Dieterich
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.,German Center for Vertigo and Balance Disorders-IFB, University Hospital, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Munich, Germany.,Munich Cluster for Systems Neurology (SyNergy), Munich, Germany
| | - Sun-Young Oh
- Jeonbuk National University College of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Department of Neurology, Jeonbuk National University Hospital & School of Medicine, Jeonju, South Korea.,Research Institute of Clinical Medicine of Jeonbuk National University-Jeonbuk National University Hospital, Jeonju, South Korea
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Aitken P, Zheng Y, Smith PF. The modulation of hippocampal theta rhythm by the vestibular system. J Neurophysiol 2018; 119:548-562. [DOI: 10.1152/jn.00548.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The vestibular system is a sensory system that has evolved over millions of years to detect acceleration of the head, both rotational and translational, in three dimensions. One of its most important functions is to stabilize gaze during unexpected head movement; however, it is also important in the control of posture and autonomic reflexes. Theta rhythm is a 3- to 12-Hz oscillating EEG signal that is intimately linked to self-motion and is also known to be important in learning and memory. Many studies over the last two decades have shown that selective activation of the vestibular system, using either natural rotational or translational stimulation, or electrical stimulation of the peripheral vestibular system, can induce and modulate theta activity. Furthermore, inactivation of the vestibular system has been shown to significantly reduce theta in freely moving animals, which may be linked to its impairment of place cell function as well as spatial learning and memory. The pathways through which vestibular information modulate theta rhythm remain debatable. However, vestibular responses have been found in the pedunculopontine tegmental nucleus (PPTg) and activation of the vestibular system causes an increase in acetylcholine release into the hippocampus, probably from the medial septum. Therefore, a pathway from the vestibular nucleus complex and/or cerebellum to the PPTg, supramammillary nucleus, posterior hypothalamic nucleus, and septum to the hippocampus is likely. The modulation of theta by the vestibular system may have implications for vestibular effects on cognitive function and the contribution of vestibular impairment to the risk of dementia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Phillip Aitken
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, and Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Yiwen Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, and Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Brain Research New Zealand Centre of Research Excellence
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
| | - Paul F. Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Biomedical Sciences, and Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
- Brain Research New Zealand Centre of Research Excellence
- Eisdell Moore Centre for Hearing and Balance Research, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
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Smith P, Darlington C, Zheng Y. The Effects of Complete Vestibular Deafferentation on Spatial Memory and the Hippocampus in the Rat: The Dunedin Experience. Multisens Res 2015; 28:461-85. [DOI: 10.1163/22134808-00002469] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Our studies conducted over the last 14 years have demonstrated that a complete bilateral vestibular deafferentation (BVD) in rats results in spatial memory deficits in a variety of behavioural tasks, such as the radial arm maze, the foraging task and the spatial T maze, as well as deficits in other tasks such as the five-choice serial reaction time task (5-CSRT task) and object recognition memory task. These deficits persist long after the BVD, and are not simply attributable to ataxia, anxiety, hearing loss or hyperactivity. In tasks such as the foraging task, the spatial memory deficits are evident in darkness when vision is not required to perform the task. The deficits in the radial arm maze, the foraging task and the spatial T maze, in particular, suggest hippocampal dysfunction following BVD, and this is supported by the finding that both hippocampal place cells and theta rhythm are dysfunctional in BVD rats. Now that it is clear that the hippocampus is adversely affected by BVD, the next challenge is to determine what vestibular information is transmitted to it and how that information is used by the hippocampus and the other brain structures with which it interacts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F. Smith
- Dept. Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, and the Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Cynthia L. Darlington
- Dept. Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, and the Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Yiwen Zheng
- Dept. Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, and the Brain Health Research Centre, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Smith PF, Zheng Y. From ear to uncertainty: vestibular contributions to cognitive function. Front Integr Neurosci 2013; 7:84. [PMID: 24324413 PMCID: PMC3840327 DOI: 10.3389/fnint.2013.00084] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2013] [Accepted: 11/07/2013] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
In addition to the deficits in the vestibulo-ocular and vestibulo-spinal reflexes that occur following vestibular dysfunction, there is substantial evidence that vestibular loss also causes cognitive disorders, some of which may be due to the reflexive deficits and some of which are related to the role that ascending vestibular pathways to the limbic system and neocortex play in spatial orientation. In this review we summarize the evidence that vestibular loss causes cognitive disorders, especially spatial memory deficits, in animals and humans and critically evaluate the evidence that these deficits are not due to hearing loss, problems with motor control, oscillopsia or anxiety and depression. We review the evidence that vestibular lesions affect head direction and place cells as well as the emerging evidence that artificial activation of the vestibular system, using galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS), can modulate cognitive function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F. Smith
- Department Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, and the Brain Health Research Centre, University of OtagoDunedin, New Zealand
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Smith PF, Haslett S, Zheng Y. A multivariate statistical and data mining analysis of spatial memory-related behaviour following bilateral vestibular loss in the rat. Behav Brain Res 2013; 246:15-23. [PMID: 23470901 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.02.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2013] [Revised: 02/17/2013] [Accepted: 02/23/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Vestibular dysfunction in animals and humans is associated with a variety of cognitive and anxiety disorders, and it has been difficult to determine how the different symptoms may be related to one another. The aim of this study was to determine the extent to which the spatial memory deficits that occur following bilateral vestibular deafferentation (BVD) in rats can be attributed to other behavioural symptoms. Spatial memory was measured using a spatial T maze alternation task (STM), while locomotor activity and anxiety were measured using open field, elevated plus and T mazes, respectively. Using multiple linear and random forest regression, we determined that the best predictors of performance in the STM were whether the animals had received a BVD or sham lesion, and the duration of rearing. Using linear discriminant analysis, random forest classification, support vector machines and cluster analysis, we found that BVD animals could be clearly distinguished from sham controls by their behavioural syndrome, in particular their decreased duration of rearing in the open field maze (suggesting reduced exploration), decreased time spent in the outer zone of the open field maze ('reduced thigmotaxis', suggesting increased risk taking), and spatial memory deficits in the STM. These results suggest that the poor performance of rats with BVD in spatial memory tasks is largely due to spatial memory deficits themselves rather than a result of other changes in locomotor activity or anxiety.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago Medical School, New Zealand.
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Smith PF. Dyscalculia and vestibular function. Med Hypotheses 2012; 79:493-6. [PMID: 22819131 DOI: 10.1016/j.mehy.2012.06.032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/02/2012] [Revised: 06/18/2012] [Accepted: 06/26/2012] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND A few studies in humans suggest that changes in stimulation of the balance organs of the inner ear (the 'vestibular system') can disrupt numerical cognition, resulting in 'dyscalculia', the inability to manipulate numbers. Many studies have also demonstrated that patients with vestibular dysfunction exhibit deficits in spatial memory. OBJECTIVES It is suggested that there may be a connection between spatial memory deficits resulting from vestibular dysfunction and the occurrence of dyscalculia, given the evidence that numerosity is coupled to the processing of spatial information (e.g., the 'spatial numerical association of response codes ('SNARC') effect'). RESULTS AND CONCLUSION The evidence supporting this hypothesis is summarised and potential experiments to test it are proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- P F Smith
- Dept. Pharmacology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Smith PF, Geddes LH, Baek JH, Darlington CL, Zheng Y. Modulation of memory by vestibular lesions and galvanic vestibular stimulation. Front Neurol 2010; 1:141. [PMID: 21173897 PMCID: PMC2995955 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2010.00141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2010] [Accepted: 10/13/2010] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
For decades it has been speculated that there is a close association between the vestibular system and spatial memories constructed by areas of the brain such as the hippocampus. While many animal studies have been conducted which support this relationship, only in the last 10 years have detailed quantitative studies been carried out in patients with vestibular disorders. The majority of these studies suggest that complete bilateral vestibular loss results in spatial memory deficits that are not simply due to vestibular reflex dysfunction, while the effects of unilateral vestibular damage are more complex and subtle. Very recently, reports have emerged that sub-threshold, noisy galvanic vestibular stimulation can enhance memory in humans, although this has not been investigated for spatial memory as yet. These studies add to the increasing evidence that suggests a connection between vestibular sensory information and memory in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago Medical School Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Smith PF, Darlington CL, Zheng Y. Move it or lose it--is stimulation of the vestibular system necessary for normal spatial memory? Hippocampus 2010; 20:36-43. [PMID: 19405142 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20588] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Studies in both experimental animals and human patients have demonstrated that peripheral vestibular lesions, especially bilateral lesions, are associated with spatial memory impairment that is long-lasting and may even be permanent. Electrophysiological evidence from animals indicates that bilateral vestibular loss causes place cells and theta activity to become dysfunctional; the most recent human evidence suggests that the hippocampus may cause atrophy in patients with bilateral vestibular lesions. Taken together, these studies suggest that self-motion information provided by the vestibular system is important for the development of spatial memory by areas of the brain such as the hippocampus, and when it is lost, spatial memory is impaired. This naturally suggests the converse possibility that activation of the vestibular system may enhance memory. Surprisingly, there is some human evidence that this may be the case. This review considers the relationship between the vestibular system and memory and suggests that the evolutionary age of this primitive sensory system as well as how it detects self-motion (i.e., detection of acceleration vs. velocity) may be the reasons for its unique contribution to spatial memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago Medical School, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Hüfner K, Hamilton DA, Kalla R, Stephan T, Glasauer S, Ma J, Brüning R, Markowitsch HJ, Labudda K, Schichor C, Strupp M, Brandt T. Spatial memory and hippocampal volume in humans with unilateral vestibular deafferentation. Hippocampus 2007; 17:471-85. [PMID: 17397043 DOI: 10.1002/hipo.20283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 109] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Patients with acquired chronic bilateral vestibular loss were recently found to have a significant impairment in spatial memory and navigation when tested with a virtual Morris water task. These deficits were associated with selective and bilateral atrophy of the hippocampus, which suggests that spatial memory and navigation also rely on vestibular input. In the present study 16 patients with unilateral vestibular deafferentation due to acoustic neurinoma were examined 5- to 13-yrs post-surgery. Volumetry of the hippocampus was performed in patients and age- and sex-matched healthy controls by manually tracing the structure and by an evaluator-independent voxel-based morphometry. Spatial memory and navigation were assessed with a virtual Morris water task. No significant deficits in spatial memory and navigation could be demonstrated in the patients with left vestibular failure, whereas patients with right vestibular loss showed a tendency to perform worse on the respective tests. Impairment was significant only for one computed measure (heading error). The subtle deficiencies with right vestibular loss are compatible with the recently described dominance of the right labyrinth and the vestibular cortex in the right hemisphere. Volumetry did not reveal any atrophy of the hippocampus in either patient group.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katharina Hüfner
- Department of Neurology, Ludwig-Maximilians University, Munich, Germany.
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Schautzer F, Hamilton D, Kalla R, Strupp M, Brandt T. Spatial Memory Deficits in Patients with Chronic Bilateral Vestibular Failure. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2006; 1004:316-24. [PMID: 14662471 DOI: 10.1196/annals.1303.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
The role of the vestibular system for navigation and spatial memory has been demonstrated in animals but not in humans. Vestibular signals are necessary for location-specific "place cell" activity in the hippocampus which provides a putative neural substrate for the spatial representation involved in navigation. To investigate the spatial memory in patients with bilateral vestibular failure due to NF2 with bilateral neurectomy, a virtual variant (on a PC) of the Morris water task adapted to humans was used. Significant spatial learning and memory deficits were shown in 12 patients as compared to 10 healthy controls. These data suggest that functional hippocampal deficits manifest due to a chronic lack of vestibular input in these patients. These deficits can even be demonstrated with the subjects stationary, i.e., without any actual vestibular or somatosensory stimulation.
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Smith PF, Horii A, Russell N, Bilkey DK, Zheng Y, Liu P, Kerr DS, Darlington CL. The effects of vestibular lesions on hippocampal function in rats. Prog Neurobiol 2005; 75:391-405. [PMID: 15936135 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2005.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2005] [Accepted: 04/28/2005] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Interest in interaction between the vestibular system and the hippocampus was stimulated by evidence that peripheral vestibular lesions could impair performance in learning and memory tasks requiring spatial information processing. By the 1990s, electrophysiological data were emerging that the brainstem vestibular nucleus complex (VNC) and the hippocampus were connected polysynaptically and that hippocampal place cells could respond to vestibular stimulation. The aim of this review is to summarise and critically evaluate research published in the last 5 years that has seen major progress in understanding the effects of vestibular damage on the hippocampus. In addition to new behavioural studies demonstrating that animals with vestibular lesions exhibit impairments in spatial memory tasks, electrophysiological studies have confirmed long-latency, polysynaptic pathways between the VNC and the hippocampus. Peripheral vestibular lesions have been shown to cause long-term changes in place cell function, hippocampal EEG activity and even CA1 field potentials in brain slices maintained in vitro. During the same period, neurochemical investigations have shown that some hippocampal subregions exhibit long-term changes in the expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase, arginase I and II, and the NR1 and NR2A N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor subunits following peripheral vestibular damage. Despite the progress, a number of important issues remain to be resolved, such as the possible contribution of auditory damage associated with vestibular lesions, to the hippocampal effects observed. Furthermore, although these studies demonstrate that damage to the vestibular system does have a long-term impact on the electrophysiological and neurochemical function of the hippocampus, they do not indicate precisely how vestibular information might be used in hippocampal functions such as developing spatial representations of the environment. Understanding this will require detailed electrical stimulation and lesion studies to elucidate the way in which different kinds of vestibular information are transmitted to various hippocampal subregions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul F Smith
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Liu P, Zheng Y, King J, Darlington CL, Smith PF. Long-term changes in hippocampal n-methyl-D-aspartate receptor subunits following unilateral vestibular damage in rat. Neuroscience 2003; 117:965-70. [PMID: 12654348 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(02)00878-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have indicated that damage to the peripheral vestibular system results in dysfunction of hippocampal place cells and an impairment of spatial learning and memory. The aim of this study was to determine whether lesions of one vestibular labyrinth (unilateral vestibular deafferentation, UVD) result in changes in the expression of the NR1 and NR2A subunits of the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor, and the GluR2 subunit of the alpha-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate receptor, in subregions of the rat hippocampus (CA1, CA2/3 and the dentate gyrus) at 10 h or 2 weeks following UVD. Compared with sham surgery controls and anaesthetic controls, the expression of the NR1 subunit was significantly reduced in the ipsilateral CA2/3 region at 2 weeks post-UVD. The expression of the NR2A subunit was also significantly reduced in the ipsilateral CA2/3 and, to a smaller extent, in the contralateral CA2/3 region, at 2 weeks post-UVD. The only other change in NR2A expression was an increase in the ipsilateral CA1 at 10 h post-UVD. No other changes in NR1, NR2A or GluR2 expression were observed in any hippocampal subregion, at any time point, or in cortical tissue at any time point. These results suggest that UVD may result in long-term changes in NMDA receptor subunit expression in the rat hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- P Liu
- Vestibular Research Group, Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Abstract
Dead reckoning is an on-line form of spatial navigation used by an animal to identify its present location and return directly to a starting location, even after circuitous outward trips. At present, it is not known which of several self-movement cues (efferent copy from movement commands, proprioceptive information, sensory flow, or vestibular information) are used to compute homeward trajectories. To determine whether vestibular information is important for dead reckoning, the impact of chemical labyrinthectomy was evaluated in a test that demanded on-line computation of a homeward trajectory. Rats were habituated to leave a refuge that was visible from all locations on a circular table to forage for large food pellets, which they carried back to the refuge to eat. Two different probe trials were given: (1) the rats foraged from the same spatial location from a hidden refuge in the light and so were able to use visual cues to navigate; (2) the same procedure took place in the dark, constraining the animals to dead reckon. Although control rats carried food directly and rapidly back to the refuge on both probes, the rats with vestibular lesions were able to do so on the hidden refuge but not on the dark probe. The scores of vestibular reflex tests predicted the dead reckoning deficit. The vestibular animals were also impaired in learning a new piloting task. This is the first unambiguous demonstration that vestibular information is used in dead reckoning and also contributes to piloting.
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Astur RS, Taylor LB, Mamelak AN, Philpott L, Sutherland RJ. Humans with hippocampus damage display severe spatial memory impairments in a virtual Morris water task. Behav Brain Res 2002; 132:77-84. [PMID: 11853860 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(01)00399-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 269] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
For nonhumans, it has been shown that the hippocampus (HPC) is critical for spatial memory. We tested patients with unilateral HPC resections on a virtual analogue of a classic spatial task to assess HPC functioning in nonhumans: the Morris water task. We found that when humans are required to use spatial cues to navigate to a hidden escape platform in a pool, patients with HPC resections display severe impairments in spatial navigation relative to age-matched controls and age-matched patients who have had extra-HPC resections. This effect occurred for every patient tested and was evident regardless of side of surgery. Hence, it is apparent across species and irrespective of which hemisphere is damaged that the human HPC is critical for spatial/relational memory.
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Affiliation(s)
- Robert S Astur
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University, P.O. Box 208042, 330 Cedar Street, New Haven, CT 06520-8042, USA.
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Zheng Y, Horii A, Appleton I, Darlington CL, Smith PF. Damage to the vestibular inner ear causes long-term changes in neuronal nitric oxide synthase expression in the rat hippocampus. Neuroscience 2001; 105:1-5. [PMID: 11483295 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(01)00217-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
The vestibular inner ear detects head acceleration and initiates compensatory eye movement and postural reflexes that help keep the visual image of the world stable on the retina, and maintain balance, during unexpected head movement. The most primitive vestibular systems are estimated to have evolved more than 500 million years ago and in mammalian and submammalian species the vestibular reflexes are mediated by basic brainstem pathways (see Wilson and Melvill Jones, 1979 for review). Although the contributions of the vestibular system to higher cognitive function have generally received less attention than its reflexive roles, vestibular sensory information is transmitted to higher centres in the brain and humans with vestibular damage are known to experience debilitating perceptual illusions (see Curthoys and Halmagyi, 1995; Berthoz, 1996 for reviews). Increasing behavioural and neurophysiological evidence suggests that the hippocampus uses information from the vestibular inner ear in order to build up maps of space that can be used in the development of spatial memory during learning tasks (McNaughton et al., 1991; Chapuis et al., 1992; Wiener and Berthoz, 1993; O'Mara et al., 1994; Wiener et al., 1995; Gavrilov et al., 1995; Stackman and Taube, 1996; Vitte et al., 1996; Taube et al., 1996; Save et al., 1998; Peruch et al., 1999; Cuthbert et al., 2000; Russell et al., 2000). However, to date, there has been no indication of the long-term neurochemical effects of the loss of vestibular input on hippocampal function. Since nitric oxide has been implicated in the mechanisms of hippocampal synaptic plasticity associated with the development of short-term memory (e.g. Schuman and Madison, 1991; Schuman et al., 1994; Arancio et al., 1996; Wu et al., 1997; Lu et al., 1999), we examined whether changes occur in the activity and expression of the enzymes responsible for nitric oxide production (nitric oxide synthases) in subregions of the rat hippocampus at different times following unilateral peripheral vestibular lesions, using western blotting and radioenzymatic assays. We found a decreased expression of neuronal nitric oxide synthase in the ipsilateral dentate gyrus at 2 weeks following the vestibular damage and not before, that may be related to the long-term effects of the loss of vestibular input on hippocampal function. These results support the hypothesis that head movement and position information derived from the vestibular inner ear may be important for the normal function of the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Otago Medical School, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Zheng Y, Smith PF, Darlington CL. Noradrenaline and serotonin levels in the guinea pig hippocampus following unilateral vestibular deafferentation. Brain Res 1999; 836:199-202. [PMID: 10415419 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(99)01571-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Recent evidence indicates that the hippocampus uses input from the vestibular system in order to accomplish its spatial computational functions. At present, there are few data on the neurochemical basis of the interactions between the vestibular system and the hippocampus. The aim of this study was to determine levels of noradrenaline (NA), serotonin (5-HT) and the 5-HT metabolite, 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), in the CA1, CA2 and dentate gyrus (DG) regions of the ipsilateral and contralateral hippocampi, at 10 h following deafferentation of the peripheral vestibular nerve (UVD) in guinea pig, using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with electrochemical detection (ECD). There were no significant differences in NA levels in the ipsilateral or contralateral CA1 following UVD. However, there was a significant increase in NA levels in the contralateral CA2 following UVD, compared to both the sham and intact anesthetic control conditions (p<0.05). No such change was seen in the ipsilateral CA2. In the contralateral DG, there was a significant increase in NA levels in both the UVD and sham conditions, compared to the intact anesthetic controls (p<0.05). No significant changes in 5-HT or 5-HIAA levels were seen in the ipsilateral or contralateral CA1, CA2 or DG following UVD. This study provides the first evidence that UVD may cause an increase in NA levels in the CA2 region of the contralateral hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Y Zheng
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago Medical School, PO Box 913, Dunedin, New Zealand
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Marlinsky VV. Vestibular and vestibulo-proprioceptive perception of motion in the horizontal plane in blindfolded man--I. Estimations of linear displacement. Neuroscience 1999; 90:389-94. [PMID: 10215144 DOI: 10.1016/s0306-4522(98)00450-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Perception of linear displacement in the horizontal plane was studied in blindfolded human subjects. Subjects were transported and walked with guidance along 2-6 m straight lines and then had to retrace these paths walking backwards. Subjects solved a double orientational task: firstly, they defined the direction of the backward path and, secondly, estimated its length. Following passive transportation overestimation of shorter distances was observed, which tended towards underestimation with path lengthening. The absolute average error in estimating a 2-m path was 0.4 +/- 0.18 m (M +/- m), a 6-m path -0.2 +/- 0.19 m. Guided subjects constantly overestimated the path length with an averaged error of 0.51 +/- 0.064 m. In defining the direction of the backward path subjects made errors scattered over a range of 0-30 degrees. These errors did not vary in relation to path length. A reverse proportionality was revealed between errors in direction and estimation of path lengths following passive transportation. It is suggested that accuracy in perceiving a linear displacement is dependent upon subjective perception of the preceding change in the trajectory of movement.
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Affiliation(s)
- V V Marlinsky
- A.A. Bogomoletz, Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences, Kiev, Ukraine
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Abstract
Since the early 1960s, researchers have speculated that the vestibular system, the sensory system concerned with the perception of balance and self-motion, contributes to spatial information processing and the development of spatial memory in the hippocampus. Anatomical studies have suggested that various parts of the thalamus are likely to transmit vestibular information to the hippocampus, perhaps via the parietal cortex; however, more direct pathways are possible. Over the last 2-3 years there have been a number of direct electrophysiological demonstrations that vestibular stimulation affects head direction cells in the anterior thalamic nuclei and place cells in the hippocampus. These studies demonstrate the importance of vestibular-hippocampal interactions for hippocampal function but also raise the possibility that the hippocampus may be important for compensation of vestibular function following peripheral or central vestibular lesions.
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Affiliation(s)
- P F Smith
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medical Sciences, University of Otago Medical School, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Moghaddam M, Kaminsky YL, Zahalka A, Bures J. Vestibular navigation directed by the slope of terrain. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 1996; 93:3439-43. [PMID: 8622954 PMCID: PMC39627 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.93.8.3439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Slope of terrain is an important orienting gradient affecting the goal-directed locomotion of animals. Its significance was assessed in experiment 1 by training rats to find in darkness a feeder on the top of a low cone (80-cm base, 0- to 4-cm high). A computerized infrared tracking system monitoring the rat's position in darkness showed that the path length on the cone surface was inversely proportional to cone height. A device allowing continuous generation of slope-guided locomotion was used in experiment 2. This device consists of a 1-m arena, the floor of which can be supported at a point corresponding to the position of one of three equidistant feeders located 17 cm from its center. The arena is inclined by the locomotion of the rat to a plane passing through the elevated (2- or 4-cm) feeder, the rat's center of gravity, and a point at the edge of the arena resting on the floor. The multitude of such planes generated by the rat's locomotion forms the surface of a virtual cone, the top of which is formed by the feeder. Additional path (difference between distance traveled and shortest distance of the animal from the goal at the onset of inclination) is inversely related to the incline of the arena and is a sensitive measure of performance in this type of vestibular navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Moghaddam
- Institute of Physiology, Academy of Sciences, Prague, Czech Republic
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Shortcut ability in hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus): The role of environmental and kinesthetic information. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 1993. [DOI: 10.3758/bf03197990] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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