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Bialuk I, Taranta A, Winnicka MM. IL-6 deficiency alters spatial memory in 4- and 24-month-old mice. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2018; 155:21-29. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2018.06.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2017] [Revised: 05/10/2018] [Accepted: 06/13/2018] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Bialuk I, Winnicka MM. Facilitatory Effect of IL-6 Deficiency on Long-Term Spatial Memory in Young Adult Mice. Behav Genet 2018; 48:236-246. [DOI: 10.1007/s10519-018-9896-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2017] [Accepted: 03/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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Rajab E, Alqanbar B, Naiser MJ, Abdulla HA, Al‐Momen MM, Kamal A. Sex differences in learning and memory following short‐term dietary restriction in the rat. Int J Dev Neurosci 2014; 36:74-80. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijdevneu.2014.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2014] [Revised: 05/29/2014] [Accepted: 05/29/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Ebrahim Rajab
- College of Medical & Health SciencesAhlia UniversityP.O. Box 10878ManamaBahrain
| | - Batool Alqanbar
- Physiology DepartmentCollege of Medicine and Medical SciencesArabian Gulf UniversityP.O. Box 22979ManamaBahrain
| | - Mohammed J. Naiser
- Physiology DepartmentCollege of Medicine and Medical SciencesArabian Gulf UniversityP.O. Box 22979ManamaBahrain
| | - Habib A. Abdulla
- Physiology DepartmentCollege of Medicine and Medical SciencesArabian Gulf UniversityP.O. Box 22979ManamaBahrain
| | - Monaf M. Al‐Momen
- Physiology DepartmentCollege of Medicine and Medical SciencesArabian Gulf UniversityP.O. Box 22979ManamaBahrain
| | - Amer Kamal
- Physiology DepartmentCollege of Medicine and Medical SciencesArabian Gulf UniversityP.O. Box 22979ManamaBahrain
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Talhati F, Patti CL, Zanin KA, Lopes-Silva LB, Ceccon LMB, Hollais AW, Bizerra CS, Santos R, Tufik S, Frussa-Filho R. Food restriction increases long-term memory persistence in adult or aged mice. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2014; 50:125-36. [PMID: 24361378 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2013.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2013] [Revised: 12/11/2013] [Accepted: 12/11/2013] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Food restriction (FR) seems to be the unique experimental manipulation that leads to a remarkable increase in lifespan in rodents. Evidences have suggested that FR can enhance memory in distinct animal models mainly during aging. However, only few studies systemically evaluated the effects FR on memory formation in both adult (3-month-old) and aged (18-24-month-old) mice. Thus, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effects of acute (12h) or repeated (12h/day for 2days) FR protocols on learning and memory of adult and aged mice evaluated in the plus-maze discriminative avoidance task (PM-DAT), an animal model that concurrently (but independently) evaluates learning and memory, anxiety and locomotion. We also investigated the possible role of FR-induced stress by the corticosterone concentration in adult mice. Male mice were kept at home cage with food ad libitum (CTRL-control condition) or subjected to FR during the dark phase of the cycle for 12h/day or 12h/2days. The FR protocols were applied before training, immediately after it or before testing. Our results demonstrated that only FR for 2days enhanced memory persistence when applied before training in adults and before testing in aged mice. Conversely, FR for 2days impaired consolidation and exerted no effects on retrieval irrespective of age. These effects do not seem to be related to corticosterone concentration. Collectively, these results indicate that FR for 2days can promote promnestic effects not only in aged mice but also in adults.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Talhati
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - C L Patti
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
| | - K A Zanin
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Departamento de Psicobiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Napoleão de Barros, 925, 04024002, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - L B Lopes-Silva
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil; Departamento de Psicobiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Napoleão de Barros, 925, 04024002, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - L M B Ceccon
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - A W Hollais
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - C S Bizerra
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - R Santos
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - S Tufik
- Departamento de Psicobiologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Napoleão de Barros, 925, 04024002, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - R Frussa-Filho
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Universidade Federal de São Paulo, R. Botucatu, 862, Ed. Leal Prado, 1° andar, 04023062, São Paulo, SP, Brazil
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López-Aumatell R, Martínez-Membrives E, Vicens-Costa E, Cañete T, Blázquez G, Mont-Cardona C, Johannesson M, Flint J, Tobeña A, Fernández-Teruel A. Effects of environmental and physiological covariates on sex differences in unconditioned and conditioned anxiety and fear in a large sample of genetically heterogeneous (N/Nih-HS) rats. Behav Brain Funct 2011; 7:48. [PMID: 22118015 PMCID: PMC3254066 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-7-48] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 11/25/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Physiological and environmental variables, or covariates, can account for an important portion of the variability observed in behavioural/physiological results from different laboratories even when using the same type of animals and phenotyping procedures. We present the results of a behavioural study with a sample of 1456 genetically heterogeneous N/Nih-HS rats, including males and females, which are part of a larger genome-wide fine-mapping QTL (Quantitative Trait Loci) study. N/Nih-HS rats have been derived from 8 inbred strains and provide very small distance between genetic recombinations, which makes them a unique tool for fine-mapping QTL studies. The behavioural test battery comprised the elevated zero-maze test for anxiety, novel-cage (open-field like) activity, two-way active avoidance acquisition (related to conditioned anxiety) and context-conditioned freezing (i.e. classically conditioned fear). Using factorial analyses of variance (ANOVAs) we aimed to analyse sex differences in anxiety and fear in this N/Nih-HS rat sample, as well as to assess the effects of (and interactions with) other independent factors, such as batch, season, coat colour and experimenter. Body weight was taken as a quantitative covariate and analysed by covariance analysis (ANCOVA). Obliquely-rotated factor analyses were also performed separately for each sex, in order to evaluate associations among the most relevant variables from each behavioural test and the common dimensions (i.e. factors) underlying the different behavioural responses. ANOVA analyses showed a consistent pattern of sex effects, with females showing less signs of anxiety and fear than males across all tests. There were also significant main effects of batch, season, colour and experimenter on almost all behavioural variables, as well as "sex × batch", "sex × season" and "sex × experimenter" interactions. Body weight showed significant effects in the ANCOVAs of most behavioural measures, but sex effects were still present in spite of (and after controlling for) these "body weight" effects. Factor analyses of relevant variables from each test showed a two-fold factor structure in both sexes, with the first factor mainly representing anxiety and conditioned fear in males, while in females the first factor was dominated by loadings of activity measures. Thus, besides showing consistent sex differences in anxiety-, fear- and activity-related responses in N/Nih-HS rats, the present study shows that females' behaviour is predominantly influenced by activity while males are more influenced by anxiety. Moreover, the results point out that, besides "sex" effects, physiological variables such as colour and body weight, and environmental factors as batch/season or "experimenter", have to be taken into account in both behavioural and quantitative genetic studies because of their demonstrated influences on phenotypic outcomes.
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Trofimiuk E, Holownia A, Braszko JJ. Activation of CREB by St. John's wort may diminish deletorious effects of aging on spatial memory. Arch Pharm Res 2010; 33:469-77. [PMID: 20361314 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-010-0318-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2009] [Revised: 01/12/2010] [Accepted: 01/14/2010] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
St. John's wort (Hypericum perforatum) is one of the leading psychotherapeutic phytomedicines. Beneficial effects of this herb in the treatment of mild to moderate depression are well known. In this study we tested a hypothesis that St. John's wort alleviates age-related memory impairments by increasing the levels of cyclic adenosine 3', 5'-monophosphate response element binding protein (CREB) and phosphorylated CREB (pCREB) in hippocampus. Middleaged rats (18 month-old) displayed a decline in the acquisition of spatial working memory (p < 0.001) in the Morris water maze (MWM). Chronic administration of Hypericum perforatum (HP) (350 mg/kg for 21 days), potently and significantly improved the processing of spatial information in the aged rats (p < 0.001). Also the herb increased the levels of pCREB in the aged rat's hippocampus (p < 0.01) as measured by western immunoblotting. Aging caused significant locomotor impairments as tested in the open field (p < 0.001) but not in the MWM test. However, these were unaffected by treatment with HP. Thus, this study indicates that St. John's wort effectively prevents aging-induced deterioration of spatial memory in 18 month-old rats, possibly by the activation of CREB regulated genes associated with memory formation. It appears that mechanism is probably inactive in young rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emil Trofimiuk
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology, Medical University of Bialystok, Waszyngtona 15A, 15-274, Bialystok, Poland.
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Kollen M, Stéphan A, Faivre-Bauman A, Loudes C, Sinet PM, Alliot J, Billard J, Epelbaum J, Dutar P, Jouvenceau A. Preserved memory capacities in aged Lou/C/Jall rats. Neurobiol Aging 2010; 31:129-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2008.03.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2007] [Revised: 03/10/2008] [Accepted: 03/14/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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van der Staay FJ, Schuurman T, van Reenen CG, Korte SM. Emotional reactivity and cognitive performance in aversively motivated tasks: a comparison between four rat strains. BEHAVIORAL AND BRAIN FUNCTIONS : BBF 2009; 5:50. [PMID: 20003525 PMCID: PMC2805679 DOI: 10.1186/1744-9081-5-50] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/03/2009] [Accepted: 12/15/2009] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Cognitive function might be affected by the subjects' emotional reactivity. We assessed whether behavior in different tests of emotional reactivity is correlated with performance in aversively motivated learning tasks, using four strains of rats generally considered to have a different emotional reactivity. METHODS The performance of male Brown Norway, Lewis, Fischer 344, and Wistar Kyoto rats in open field (OF), elevated plus-maze (EPM), and circular light-dark preference box (cLDB) tasks, which are believed to provide measures of emotional reactivity, was evaluated. Spatial working and reference memory were assessed in two aversively motivated learning and memory tasks: the standard and the "repeated acquisition" versions of the Morris water maze escape task, respectively. All rats were also tested in a passive avoidance task. At the end of the study, levels of serotonin (5-HT) and 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid, and 5-HT turnover in the hippocampus and frontal cortex were determined. RESULTS Strain differences showed a complex pattern across behavioral tests and serotonergic measures. Fischer 344 rats had the poorest performance in both versions of the Morris water escape task, whereas Brown Norway rats performed these tasks very well but the passive avoidance task poorly. Neither correlation analysis nor principal component analysis provided convincing support for the notion that OF, EPM, and cLDB tasks measure the same underlying trait. CONCLUSIONS Our findings do not support the hypothesis that the level of emotional reactivity modulates cognitive performance in aversively motivated tasks. Concepts such as "emotional reactivity" and "learning and memory" cannot adequately be tapped with only one behavioral test. Our results emphasize the need for multiple testing.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Josef van der Staay
- Programme Emotion & Cognition, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Utrecht, PO Box 80151, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands
- BioMedical Research, Wageningen University and Research Center, Lelystad, the Netherlands
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
| | - Teun Schuurman
- BioMedical Research, Wageningen University and Research Center, Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - Cornelis G van Reenen
- Livestock Research, Wageningen University and Research Center, Lelystad, the Netherlands
| | - S Mechiel Korte
- Programme Emotion & Cognition, Department of Farm Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University Utrecht, PO Box 80151, 3508 TD Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Department of Psychopharmacology, Utrecht Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences (UIPS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
- Rudolf Magnus Institute of Neuroscience, Utrecht University, Utrecht, the Netherlands
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Van Wijk N, Rijntjes E, Van De Heijning BJM. Perinatal and chronic hypothyroidism impair behavioural development in male and female rats. Exp Physiol 2008; 93:1199-209. [DOI: 10.1113/expphysiol.2008.042416] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Crofton KM, Foss JA, Hass U, Jensen KF, Levin ED, Parker SP. Undertaking positive control studies as part of developmental neurotoxicity testing: a report from the ILSI Research Foundation/Risk Science Institute expert working group on neurodevelopmental endpoints. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2007; 30:266-87. [PMID: 17681747 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2007.06.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2007] [Revised: 04/26/2007] [Accepted: 06/07/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Developmental neurotoxicity testing involves functional and neurohistological assessments in offspring during and following maternal and/or neonatal exposure. Data from positive control studies are an integral component in developmental neurotoxicity risk assessments. Positive control data are crucial for evaluating a laboratory's capability to detect chemical-induced changes in measured endpoints. Positive control data are also valuable in a weight-of-evidence approach to help determine the biological significance of results and provide confidence in negative results from developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) studies. This review is a practical guide for the selection and use of positive control agents in developmental neurotoxicology. The advantages and disadvantages of various positive control agents are discussed for the endpoints in developmental neurotoxicity studies. Design issues specific to positive control studies in developmental neurotoxicity are considered and recommendations on how to interpret and report positive control data are made. Positive control studies should be conducted as an integral component of the incorporation and use of developmental neurotoxicity testing methods in laboratories that generate data used in risk decisions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kevin M Crofton
- Neurotoxicology Division, NHEERL, ORD, US EPA, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA.
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van der Staay FJ. Animal models of behavioral dysfunctions: Basic concepts and classifications, and an evaluation strategy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2006; 52:131-59. [PMID: 16529820 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainresrev.2006.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 131] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2005] [Revised: 01/17/2006] [Accepted: 01/17/2006] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
In behavioral neurosciences, such as neurobiology and biopsychology, animal models make it possible to investigate brain-behavior relations, with the aim of gaining insight into normal and abnormal human behavior and its underlying neuronal and neuroendocrinological processes. Different types of animal models of behavioral dysfunctions are reviewed in this article. In order to determine the precise criteria that an animal model should fulfill, experts from different fields must define the desired characteristics of that model at the neuropathologic and behavioral level. The list of characteristics depends on the purpose of the model. The phenotype-abnormal behavior or behavioral dysfunctions-has to be translated into testable measures in animal experiments. It is essential to standardize rearing, housing, and testing conditions, and to evaluate the reliability, validity (primarily predictive and construct validity), and biological or clinical relevance of putative animal models of human behavioral dysfunctions. This evaluation, guided by a systematic strategy, is central to the development of a model. The necessity of animal models and the responsible use of animals in research are discussed briefly.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Josef van der Staay
- Wageningen University and Research Center, Animal Sciences Group, PO Box 65, 8200 AB Lelystad, The Netherlands.
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YANAI S, OKAICHI Y, OKAICHI H. QUADRATIC RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LONG-TERM DIETARY RESTRICTION AND SPATIAL COGNITION IN RATS. PSYCHOLOGIA 2006. [DOI: 10.2117/psysoc.2006.214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi YANAI
- Doshisha University
- Japan Society for the Promotion of Science
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Yanai S, Okaichi Y, Okaichi H. Long-term dietary restriction causes negative effects on cognitive functions in rats. Neurobiol Aging 2004; 25:325-32. [PMID: 15123338 DOI: 10.1016/s0197-4580(03)00115-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2002] [Revised: 04/07/2003] [Accepted: 04/28/2003] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Long-term dietary restriction is reported to increase life span and improve age-related cognitive deficits. The present study shows that the restriction increases the life span of rats but decreases their cognitive ability. Thirty-two rats were divided into restricted and ad lib feeding groups at 2.5 months of age. The restricted rats were kept at a weight of 280g. The restricted rats were poor in performing the Morris water maze task at 7-12 months. At 17-18 months, they were poor in performing the delayed matching-to-place task. At 24-27 months, the surviving 13 restricted and 5 ad lib rats performed the spatial discrimination task. The restricted rats were also poor in performing this task. Injection of glucose prior to the discrimination task improved their performance to the level of the ad lib rats. These results suggest that dietary restriction is beneficial for longevity but has negative effects on the performance of cognitive tasks, and that the cause of the negative effects may be a reduced availability of glucose in the food-restricted aged rats.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuichi Yanai
- Department of Psychology, Doshisha University, Kyoto 602-8580, Japan.
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Eijkenboom M, Gerlach I, Jork R, Lowe D, van der Staay FJ. Effects of subdural haematoma on sensorimotor functioning and spatial learning in rats. Neuropharmacology 2000; 39:817-34. [PMID: 10699447 DOI: 10.1016/s0028-3908(00)00002-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Twenty per cent of all strokes are haemorrhagic in character and are associated with severe disturbances in sensorimotor behaviour and cognition. Although spontaneous recovery of pre-stroke functioning occurs in some cases, the process is demanding, slow, and often incomplete. A first step in the preclinical testing of new putative, neuroprotective and recovery-supporting therapeutics is to validate animal models of brain injury. In a series of four experiments we evaluated the behavioural impairments and the time course of recovery of functional deficits in rats with an experimentally induced subdural haematoma. We found that unilateral subdural haematoma resulted in dysfunction in both simple reflexive (experiment 1) and skilled sensorimotor behaviour (experiment 2). Reflexive behaviour did not recover, or recovered only marginally, and neither did the deficits in skilled forepaw use. Bilateral subdural haematoma impaired the learning and memory performance of adult (experiment 3) and old rats (experiment 4) in the Morris water escape task. Considering the diversity of the deficits found in our experiments, we conclude that different models are needed to cover the broad range of deficits seen in stroke patients.
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MESH Headings
- Age Factors
- Animals
- Behavior, Animal/physiology
- Corpus Callosum/pathology
- Crosses, Genetic
- Disease Models, Animal
- Escape Reaction/physiology
- Forelimb/physiology
- Hematoma, Subdural, Acute/pathology
- Hematoma, Subdural, Acute/physiopathology
- Hindlimb/physiology
- Male
- Maze Learning/physiology
- Motor Cortex/pathology
- Motor Cortex/physiopathology
- Psychomotor Performance/physiology
- Rats
- Rats, Inbred BN
- Rats, Inbred F344
- Rats, Wistar
- Reaction Time/physiology
- Reflex/physiology
- Somatosensory Cortex/pathology
- Somatosensory Cortex/physiopathology
- Space Perception
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Affiliation(s)
- M Eijkenboom
- CNS Research, Bayer AG, Pharma Research Center, Building 500, Aprather Weg 18a, D-42096, Wuppertal, Germany
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van der Staay FJ, Fanelli RJ, Blokland A, Schmidt BH. Behavioral effects of apamin, a selective inhibitor of the SK(Ca)-channel, in mice and rats. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 1999; 23:1087-110. [PMID: 10643819 DOI: 10.1016/s0149-7634(99)00043-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Apamin, a highly selective and potent peptide that blocks the SK(Ca)-channels has been suggested to be a cognition enhancer. We tested apamin in the Morris water escape task, in shock motivated avoidance tasks, and in operant tasks in the Skinnerbox. We also used non-cognitive tests, such as the rat forced swimming test and cocaine-induced locomotor activity in the open field, and a test to assess the side effect profile. Mice and rats from different strains, and rats of different ages were used. The rat studies provided only weak support for the notion that apamin acts as a cognition enhancer. More convincing evidence was obtained from the mouse studies. Overt side effects of apamin were found at the dose of 0.3 mg kg(-1). This dose was close to, or even overlapped, the doses which improved cognition in mice. We conclude that apamin is a poor tool to assess the role of SK(Ca)-channels in learning and memory processes.
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