The mechanism of Ca2+ release from the SR of permeabilised guinea-pig and rat ureteric smooth muscle

Inositol trisphosphate receptors in smooth muscle cells

Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (IP(3)Rs) are a family of tetrameric intracellular calcium (Ca(2+)) release channels that are located on the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) membrane of virtually all mammalian cell types, including smooth muscle cells (SMC). Here, we have reviewed literature investigating IP(3)R expression, cellular localization, tissue distribution, activity regulation, communication with ion channels and organelles, generation of Ca(2+) signals, modulation of physiological functions, and alterations in pathologies in SMCs. Three IP(3)R isoforms have been identified, with relative expression and cellular localization of each contributing to signaling differences in diverse SMC types. Several endogenous ligands, kinases, proteins, and other modulators control SMC IP(3)R channel activity. SMC IP(3)Rs communicate with nearby ryanodine-sensitive Ca(2+) channels and mitochondria to influence SR Ca(2+) release and reactive oxygen species generation. IP(3)R-mediated Ca(2+) release can stimulate plasma membrane-localized channels, including transient receptor potential (TRP) channels and store-operated Ca(2+) channels. SMC IP(3)Rs also signal to other proteins via SR Ca(2+) release-independent mechanisms through physical coupling to TRP channels and local communication with large-conductance Ca(2+)-activated potassium channels. IP(3)R-mediated Ca(2+) release generates a wide variety of intracellular Ca(2+) signals, which vary with respect to frequency, amplitude, spatial, and temporal properties. IP(3)R signaling controls multiple SMC functions, including contraction, gene expression, migration, and proliferation. IP(3)R expression and cellular signaling are altered in several SMC diseases, notably asthma, atherosclerosis, diabetes, and hypertension. In summary, IP(3)R-mediated pathways control diverse SMC physiological functions, with pathological alterations in IP(3)R signaling contributing to disease.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum function in smooth muscle

The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) of smooth muscles presents many intriguing facets and questions concerning its roles, especially as these change with development, disease, and modulation of physiological activity. The SR's function was originally perceived to be synthetic and then that of a Ca store for the contractile proteins, acting as a Ca amplification mechanism as it does in striated muscles. Gradually, as investigators have struggled to find a convincing role for Ca-induced Ca release in many smooth muscles, a role in controlling excitability has emerged. This is the Ca spark/spontaneous transient outward current coupling mechanism which reduces excitability and limits contraction. Release of SR Ca occurs in response to inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate, Ca, and nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate, and depletion of SR Ca can initiate Ca entry, the mechanism of which is being investigated but seems to involve Stim and Orai as found in nonexcitable cells. The contribution of the elemental Ca signals from the SR, sparks and puffs, to global Ca signals, i.e., Ca waves and oscillations, is becoming clearer but is far from established. The dynamics of SR Ca release and uptake mechanisms are reviewed along with the control of luminal Ca. We review the growing list of the SR's functions that still includes Ca storage, contraction, and relaxation but has been expanded to encompass Ca homeostasis, generating local and global Ca signals, and contributing to cellular microdomains and signaling in other organelles, including mitochondria, lysosomes, and the nucleus. For an integrated approach, a review of aspects of the SR in health and disease and during development and aging are also included. While the sheer versatility of smooth muscle makes it foolish to have a "one model fits all" approach to this subject, we have tried to synthesize conclusions wherever possible.

Spontaneous electrical and Ca2+ signals in the mouse renal pelvis that drive pyeloureteric peristalsis

1. Peristalsis in the smooth muscle cell (SMC) wall of the pyeloureteric system is unique in physiology in that the primary pacemaker resides in a population of atypical SMCs situated near the border of the renal papilla. 2. Atypical SMCs display high-frequency Ca(2+) transients upon the spontaneous release of Ca(2+) from inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))-dependent stores that trigger cation-selective spontaneous transient depolarizations (STDs). In the presence of nifedipine, these Ca(2+) transients and STDs seldom propagate > 100 mum. Synchronization of STDs in neighbouring atypical SMCs into an electrical signal that can trigger action potential discharge and contraction in the typical SMC layer involves a coupled oscillator mechanism dependent on Ca(2+) entry through L-type voltage-operated Ca(2+) channels. 3. A population of spindle- or stellate-shaped cells, immunopositive for the tyrosine receptor kinase kit, is sparsely distributed throughout the pyeloureteric system. In addition, Ca(2+) transients and action potentials of long duration occurring at low frequencies have been recorded in a population of fusiform cells, which we have termed interstitial cells of Cajal (ICC)-like cells. 4. The electrical and Ca(2+) signals in ICC-like cells are abolished upon blockade of Ca(2+) release from either IP(3)- or ryanodine-dependent Ca(2+) stores. However, the spontaneous Ca(2+) signals in atypical SMCs or ICC-like cells are little affected in W/W(-v) transgenic mice, which have extensive lesions of their intestinal ICC networks. 5. In summary, we have developed a model of pyeloureteric pacemaking in which atypical SMCs are indeed the primary pacemakers, but the function of ICC-like cells has yet to be determined.

A review of recent insights into the role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and Ca entry in uterine smooth muscle

The uterine sacroplasmic reticulum (SR) takes up and stores calcium [Ca], using an ATPase (SERCA) and the Ca-buffering proteins, calsequestrin and calreticulin. This stored Ca can be released via IP(3)-gated Ca channels. Decreases in luminal Ca concentration [Ca] have been directly measured following agonist stimulation. During spontaneous contractions however, there appears to be no involvement of the SR, as Ca entry and efflux across the plasma membrane account for these phasic contractions. After over-viewing current knowledge concerning SR structure and function, we highlight three areas of research which suggest new ways of looking at the role of the SR in the uterus, although they may be controversial or speculative at the moment. Firstly, we review the evidence for the function, if any, of Ca-induced SR Ca release channels, the ryanodine receptor (RyR) and the lack of Ca sparks (the elemental release events from RyRs), in the uterus. Secondly, we ask does regulation of SERCA by the accessory protein, phospholamban, occur in the uterus and what is the effect of knocking out phospholamban on uterine activity? Thirdly, we address the question of when and how store-operated Ca entry occurs in the myometrium. By analogy with other, usually less excitable tissues, is there a mechanism that links store Ca depletion to plasma membrane Ca entry in smooth muscle cells within intact uterus and is it physiologically relevant and regulated? Are the recently described proteins ORAI and STIM-1 involved in uterine store-operated Ca entry? We end the review by integrating these new insights with previous data to present a new working model of the SR in the uterus.

Role of Ca2+ entry and Ca2+ stores in atypical smooth muscle cell autorhythmicity in the mouse renal pelvis

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

Electrically active atypical smooth muscle cells (ASMCs) within the renal pelvis have long been considered to act as pacemaker cells driving pelviureteric peristalsis. We have investigated the role of Ca2+ entry and uptake into and release from internal stores in the generation of Ca2+ transients and spontaneous transient depolarizations (STDs) in ASMCs.

EXPERIMENTAL APPROACH

The electrical activity and separately visualized changes in intracellular Ca2+ concentration in typical smooth muscle cells (TSMCs), ASMCs and interstitial cells of Cajal-like cells (ICC-LCs) were recorded using intracellular microelectrodes and a fluorescent Ca2+ indicator, fluo-4.

RESULTS

In 1 microM nifedipine, high frequency (10-30 min(-1)) Ca2+ transients and STDs were recorded in ASMCs, while ICC-LCs displayed low frequency (1-3 min(-1)) Ca2+ transients. All spontaneous electrical activity and Ca2+ transients were blocked upon removal of Ca2+ from the bathing solution, blockade of Ca2+ store uptake with cyclopiazonic acid (CPA) and with 2-aminoethoxy-diphenylborate (2-APB). STD amplitudes were reduced upon removal of the extracellular Na+ or blockade of IP3 dependent Ca2+ store release with neomycin or U73122. Blockade of ryanodine-sensitive Ca2+ release blocked ICC-LC Ca2+ transients but only reduced Ca2+ transient discharge in ASMCs. STDs in ASMCS were also little affected by DIDS, La3+, Gd3+ or by the replacement of extracellular Cl(-) with isethionate.

CONCLUSIONS

ASMCs generated Ca2+ transients and cation-selective STDs via mechanisms involving Ca2+ release from IP3-dependent Ca2+ stores, STD stimulation of TSMCs was supported by Ca2+ entry through L type Ca2+ channels and Ca2+ release from ryanodine-sensitive stores.

Evidence that a Ca2+ sparks/STOCs coupling mechanism is responsible for the inhibitory effect of caffeine on electro-mechanical coupling in guinea pig ureteric smooth muscle

Recent studies have highlighted the role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) in controlling excitability, Ca2+ signalling and contractility in smooth muscle. Caffeine, an agonist of ryanodine receptors (RyRs) on the SR has been previously shown to effect Ca2+ signalling but its effects on excitability and contractility are not so clear. We have studied the effects of low concentration of caffeine (1 mM) on Ca2+ signalling, action potential and contractility of guinea pig ureteric smooth muscle. Caffeine produced reversible inhibition of the action potentials, Ca2+ transients and phasic contractions evoked by electrical stimulation. It had no effect on the inward Ca2+ current or Ca2+ transient but increased the amplitude and the frequency of spontaneous transient outward currents (STOCs) in voltage clamped ureteric myocytes, suggesting Ca2+-activated K+ channels (BK) are affected by it. In isolated cells and cells in situ caffeine produced an increase in the frequency and the amplitude of Ca2+ sparks as well the number of spark discharging sites per cell. Inhibition of Ca2+ sparks by ryanodine (50 microM) or SR Ca2+-ATPase (SERCA) cyclopiazonic acid (CPA, 20 microM) or BKCa channels by iberiotoxin (200 nM) or TEA (1 mM), fully reversed the inhibitory effect of caffeine on Ca2+ transients and force evoked by electrical field stimulation (EFS). These data suggest that the inhibitory effect of caffeine on the action potential, Ca2+ transients and force in ureteric smooth muscle is caused by activation of Ca2+ sparks/STOCs coupling mechanism.

Two distinct signaling pathways for regulation of spontaneous local Ca2+ release by phospholipase C in airway smooth muscle cells

Spontaneous local Ca(2+) release events have been observed in airway smooth muscle cells (SMCs), but the underlying mechanisms are largely unknown. Considering that each type of SMCs may use its own mechanisms to regulate local Ca(2+) release events, we sought to investigate the signaling pathway for spontaneous local Ca(2+) release events in freshly isolated mouse airway SMCs using a laser scanning confocal microscope. Application of ryanodine to block ryanodine receptors (RyRs) abolished spontaneous local Ca(2+) release events, indicating that these events are RyR-mediated Ca(2+) sparks. Inhibition of inositol 1,4,5-triphosphate receptors (IP(3)Rs) by 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl-borate (2-APB) or xestospongin-C significantly blocked the activity of Ca(2+) sparks. Under patch clamp conditions, dialysis of IP(3) to activate IP(3)Rs increased the activity of local Ca(2+) events in control cells but had no effect in ryanodine-pretreated cells. The RyR agonist caffeine augmented the frequency of Ca(2+) sparks in cells pretreated with and without 2-APB or xestospongin-C. The specific phospholipase C (PLC) blocker U73122 decreased the activity of Ca(2+) sparks and prevented xestospongin-C from producing the inhibitory effect. The protein kinase C (PKC) activator 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-glycerol or phorbol-12-myristate-13-acetate inhibited Ca(2+) sparks, whereas the PKC inhibitor chelerythrine, PKCvarepsilon inhibitory peptide, or PKCvarepsilon gene knockout produced an opposite effect. Collectively, our data suggest that the basal activation of PLC regulates the activity of RyR-mediated, spontaneous Ca(2+) sparks in airway SMCs through two distinct signaling pathways: a positive IP(3)-IP(3)R pathway and a negative diacylglycerol-PKCvarepsilon pathway.

Ca2+ microdomains in smooth muscle

In smooth muscle, Ca(2+) controls diverse activities including cell division, contraction and cell death. Of particular significance in enabling Ca(2+) to perform these multiple functions is the cell's ability to localize Ca(2+) signals to certain regions by creating high local concentrations of Ca(2+) (microdomains), which differ from the cytoplasmic average. Microdomains arise from Ca(2+) influx across the plasma membrane or release from the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca(2+) store. A single Ca(2+) channel can create a microdomain of several micromolar near (approximately 200 nm) the channel. This concentration declines quickly with peak rates of several thousand micromolar per second when influx ends. The high [Ca(2+)] and the rapid rates of decline target Ca(2+) signals to effectors in the microdomain with rapid kinetics and enable the selective activation of cellular processes. Several elements within the cell combine to enable microdomains to develop. These include the brief open time of ion channels, localization of Ca(2+) by buffering, the clustering of ion channels to certain regions of the cell and the presence of membrane barriers, which restrict the free diffusion of Ca(2+). In this review, the generation of microdomains arising from Ca(2+) influx across the plasma membrane and the release of the ion from the SR Ca(2+) store will be discussed and the contribution of mitochondria and the Golgi apparatus as well as endogenous modulators (e.g. cADPR and channel binding proteins) will be considered.

Action potential refractory period in ureter smooth muscle is set by Ca sparks and BK channels

In excitable tissues the refractory period is a critical control mechanism preventing hyperactivity and undesirable tetani, by preventing subsequent stimuli eliciting action potentials and Ca2+ entry. In ureteric smooth muscle, peristaltic waves that occur as invading pacemaker potentials produce long-lasting action potentials (300-800 ms) and extraordinarily long (more than 10 s) refractory periods, which prevent urine reflux and kidney damage. For smooth muscles neither the mechanisms underlying the refractory period nor the link between excitability and refractoriness are properly understood. Here we show that a negative feedback process, which depends on Ca2+ loading the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) during the action potential and on the subsequent activation of local releases of Ca2+ from the SR (sparks), stimulating plasmalemmal Ca2+-sensitive K+ (BK) channels, determines the refractory period of the action potential. As sparks gradually reduce the Ca2+ load in the SR, electrical inhibition is released, the refractory period is terminated and peristaltic contractions occur again. The refractory period can be manipulated, for example from 10 s to 100 s, by altering the Ca2+ content of the SR or release mechanism or by inhibiting BK channels. This insight into the control of excitability and hence function provides a focus for therapies directed at pathologies of smooth muscle.

Pharmacological modulation of sarcoplasmic reticulum function in smooth muscle

The sarco/endoplasmic reticulum (SR/ER) is the primary storage and release site of intracellular calcium (Ca2+) in many excitable cells. The SR is a tubular network, which in smooth muscle (SM) cells distributes close to cellular periphery (superficial SR) and in deeper aspects of the cell (deep SR). Recent attention has focused on the regulation of cell function by the superficial SR, which can act as a buffer and also as a regulator of membrane channels and transporters. Ca2+ is released from the SR via two types of ionic channels [ryanodine- and inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate-gated], whereas accumulation from thecytoplasm occurs exclusively by an energy-dependent sarco-endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+-ATPase pump (SERCA). Within the SR, Ca2+ is bound to various storage proteins. Emerging evidence also suggests that the perinuclear portion of the SR may play an important role in nuclear transcription. In this review, we detail the pharmacology of agents that alter the functions of Ca2+ release channels and of SERCA. We describe their use and selectivity and indicate the concentrations used in investigating various SM preparations. Important aspects of cell regulation and excitation-contractile activity coupling in SM have been uncovered through the use of such activators and inhibitors of processes that determine SR function. Likewise, they were instrumental in the recent finding of an interaction of the SR with other cellular organelles such as mitochondria. Thus, an appreciation of the pharmacology and selectivity of agents that interfere with SR function in SM has greatly assisted in unveiling the multifaceted nature of the SR.

Interactions between inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors and ryanodine receptors in smooth muscle: one store or two?

This short review proposes a system of simplified functional models describing possible interactions between Ca(2+)-release channels associated with IP(3)Rs and RyRs in smooth muscle, and considers each of these models in the light of the available experimental evidence. Complete separation of IP(3)R- and RyR-gated stores seems to be unusual. Where both receptors release Ca(2+) from a common pool, simple interactions can occur since changes in the activation of one receptor type affects the availability of Ca(2+) for release through the other. Alterations in [Ca(2+)] within the sarcoplasmic reticulum can also affect the open probability of the release channels, and not just the Ca(2+)-flux through the channels when open, e.g., Ca(2+)-release through tonically active IP(3)Rs appears to limit SR Ca(2+)-content in some myocytes, and this modulates RyR activity, as indicated by changes in Ca(2+)-spark frequency. There is also evidence that intracellular release channels may co-operate, leading to positive feedback during activation. In particular, agonist-dependent activation of IP(3)Rs can promote activation of RyRs, amplifying and shaping the resulting Ca(2+)-signal. While there is little direct evidence as to the mechanism responsible for this interaction, some form of Ca(2+)-induced Ca(2+)-release in response to local increases in [Ca(2+)](c) seems likely.

Crosstalk between ryanodine receptors and IP(3) receptors as a factor shaping spontaneous Ca(2+)-release events in rabbit portal vein myocytes

In smooth muscle cells freshly isolated from rabbit portal vein, there was only one site discharging the majority of spontaneous Ca(2+)-release events; the activity of this single site was studied using laser scanning confocal imaging after loading the cells with the fluorescent Ca(2+) indicator fluo-4 acetoxymethyl ester. Localised spontaneous Ca(2+)-release events visualised by line-scan imaging revealed two predominant spatiotemporal patterns: (i) small-amplitude, fast events similar to Ca(2+) sparks in cardiomyocytes and (ii) larger and slower events. The sum of two Gaussian profiles was well fitted to the amplitude histogram (peak frequencies at 1.8 and 3.2 F/F(0)) and spatial spread (full width at half-maximal amplitude) histogram (peak frequencies at 2 and 3.8 microm) for the 230 localised Ca(2+)-release events analysed. The existence of two populations of Ca(2+)-release events was also supported by the histograms of the rise times and half-decay times, which revealed modes at 38 and 65 ms, respectively. Shifting the scan line along the z-axis during imaging from a single discharge site suggested that the appearance of two populations of Ca(2+)-release events is not due to out-of-focus imaging. Both small and large events persisted upon 3-5 min exposure to 1-5 microM nicardipine, but were abolished after 10-15 min exposure to 50-100 microM ryanodine, 0.1 microM thapsigargin or 10 microM cyclopiazonic acid. Only small-amplitude, fast events persisted in the presence of inhibitors of inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP(3))-induced Ca(2+) release, 10 microM xestospongin C or 30 microM 2-aminoethoxy-diphenylborate (2-APB), or in the presence of 2.5 microM U-73122 (a phospholipase C (PLC) inhibitor). Coupling between neighbouring Ca(2+)-release domains giving rise to spontaneous [Ca(2+)](i) waves was abolished in the presence of 2-APB. Examination of the saltatory propagation of the waves suggested that the critical factor that determines propagation between domains is a time-dependent change in the sensitivity of ryanodine receptors and/or IP(3) receptors to Ca(2+), which can give rise to 'loose coupling' between release sites. These results suggest that activation of IP(3) receptors (due to the tonic activity of PLC and ongoing production of IP(3)) recruits neighbouring domains of ryanodine receptors, leading to larger Ca(2+) releases and saltatory propagation of [Ca(2+)](i) waves in portal vein myocytes.

Activation of muscarinic acetylcholine receptors induces Ca(2+) mobilization in FRT cells

The effect of the muscarinic receptors agonist carbachol (Cch) on intracellular calcium concentration ([Ca(2+)](i)) and cAMP level was studied in polarized Fischer rat thyroid (FRT) epithelial cells. Cch provoked a transient increase in [Ca(2+)](i), followed by a lower sustained phase. Thapsigargin, a specific microsomal Ca(2+)-ATPase inhibitor, caused a rapid rise in [Ca(2+)](i) and subsequent addition of Cch was without effect. Removal of extracellular Ca(2+) reduced the initial transient response and completely abolished the plateau phase. Ryanodine, an agent that depletes intracellular Ca(2+) stores through stimulation of ryanodine receptors (RyRs), had no effect on [Ca(2+)](i). However, the transitory activation of [Ca(2+)](i) was dose-dependently attenuated in cells pretreated with U73122, a specific inhibitor of phospholipase C (PLC). These data suggest that the Cch-stimulated increment of [Ca(2+)](i) required IP(3) formation and binding to its specific receptors in Ca(2+) stores. Further studies were performed to investigate whether the effect of Cch on Ca(2+) entry into FRT cells was via L-type voltage-dependent Ca(2+) channels (L-VDCCs). Nicardipine, a nonspecific L-type Ca(2+) channel blocker, decreased Cch-induced increase on [Ca(2+)](i), while Bay K-8644, an L-type Ca(2+) channel agonist, slightly increased [Ca(2+)](i) in FRT cells. These data indicate that Ca(2+) entry into these nondifferentiated thyroid cells occurs through an L-VDCC, and probably through another mechanism such as a capacitative pathway. Cch did not affect the intracellular cAMP levels, but its effects on [Ca(2+)](i) were significantly reduced when cells were pretreated with forskolin, suggesting the existence of an intracellular cross-talk between PLC and cAMP mechanisms in the regulation of intracellular Ca(2+) mobilization in neoplastic FRT cells.

Ca(2+) signals mediated by Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-gated channels in rat ureteric myocytes

Localized Ca(2+)-release signals (puffs) and propagated Ca(2+) waves were characterized in rat ureteric myocytes by confocal microscopy. Ca(2+) puffs were evoked by photorelease of low concentrations of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) from a caged precursor and by low concentrations of acetylcholine; they were also observed spontaneously in Ca(2+)-overloaded myocytes. Ca(2+) puffs showed some variability in amplitude, time course and spatial spread, suggesting that Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-gated channels exist in clusters containing variable numbers of channels and that within these clusters a variable number of channels can be recruited. Immunodetection of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptors revealed the existence of several spots of fluorescence in the confocal cell sections, supporting the existence of clusters of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptors. Strong Ins(1,4,5)P(3) photorelease and high concentrations of acetylcholine induced Ca(2+) waves that originated from an initiation site and propagated in the whole cell by spatial recruitment of neighbouring Ca(2+)-release sites. Both Ca(2+) puffs and Ca(2+) waves were blocked selectively by intracellular applications of heparin and an anti-Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-receptor antibody, but were unaffected by ryanodine and intracellular application of an anti-ryanodine receptor antibody. mRNAs encoding for the three subtypes of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptor and subtype 3 of ryanodine receptor were detected in these myocytes, and the maximal binding capacity of [(3)H]Ins(1,4,5)P(3) was 10- to 12-fold higher than that of [(3)H]ryanodine. These results suggest that Ins(1,4,5)P(3)-gated channels mediate a continuum of Ca(2+) signalling in smooth-muscle cells expressing a high level of Ins(1,4,5)P(3) receptors and no subtypes 1 and 2 of ryanodine receptors.

The effect of cyclopiazonic acid on excitation-contraction coupling in guinea-pig ureteric smooth muscle: role of the sarcoplasmic reticulum

1. We have investigated the effect of cyclopiazonic acid (CPA), an inhibitor of the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) Ca2+-ATPase on excitation-contraction (EC) coupling in guinea-pig ureter, by measuring membrane currents, action potentials, intracellular [Ca2+] and force. 2. CPA (20 micrometers) significantly enhanced the amplitude and duration of phasic contractions of ureteric smooth muscle associated with action potentials. This was accompanied by an increase in the duration of the intracellular Ca2+ transient in intact tissue and single cells but not their amplitude. However, CPA also slowed the rate of rise, and fall, of the force 1|1|Phiand1Phi Ca2+ transients. 3. Membrane potential recordings showed that CPA produced a small depolarization and a large increase in the duration of the plateau phase of the action potential. 4. Patch-clamp studies showed marked inhibition of outward potassium current in the presence of CPA and an inhibition of spontaneous transient outward currents (STOCs). CPA had no effect on inward Ca2+ current. 5. These data suggest that the SR plays a major role in modulating the excitability of the ureter, particularly via curtailing the action potential duration. This in turn will shorten the Ca2+ transient and decrease force. This negative action on developed force predominates over any small role it may play in initiating force in the guinea-pig ureter.