Endothelins, their receptors, and retinal vascular dysfunction in galactose-fed rats

Effect of Dual Endothelin Receptor Antagonist on a Retinal Degeneration Animal Model by Regulating Choroidal Microvascular Morphology

Objective

Clinical studies have found that increasing levels of plasma endothelin-1 (ET-1) might inhibit choroidal blood flow (BF) and promote choroidal vasoconstriction. This study was designed to investigate ET-1 levels and its effect on choroidal microvascular morphology in a retinitis pigmentosa (RP) animal model.

Methods

Mice with retinal degeneration (rd10) were intragastrically administered bosentan, a dual endothelin receptor antagonist. We detected plasma ET-1 levels using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit at P14, P21, and P28 and evaluated ET-1 expression in RPE/choroid/sclera complexes using western blot and whole mount immunofluorescence staining at P28. Retinal thickness was measured using hematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining at P28. At the same time, we also estimated choroidal microvascular densities using vascular luminal casting with a scanning electron microscope (SEM).

Results

Plasma ET-1 levels were increased significantly in rd10 mice at P21 (65.48 ± 24.83 pg/ml) and P28 (85.89 ± 20.23 pg/ml) compared with C57BL/6J mice at P21 (33.52 ± 16.33 pg/ml) and P28 (42.38 ± 17.53 pg/ml); the expression of ET-1 was also upregulated in RPE/choroid/sclera complexes at P28. Bosentan inhibited ET-1 expression in plasma (P < 0.05) and RPE/choroid/sclera complexes at P28 in rd10 mice. Choroidal microvascular densities were decreased in rd10 mice, and bosentan could weaken these changes.

Conclusion

Plasma and local ET-1 was elevated in an animal model of RP, suggesting that it likely participates in the pathological progression of retinal degeneration and may thus provide a new intervention target. ET-1 blockade might exert its protective effect by elevating choroidal microvascular density via inhibition of ET-1.

An Endothelin Type A Receptor Antagonist Reverses Upregulated VEGF and ICAM-1 Levels in Streptozotocin-Induced Diabetic Rat Retina

Diabetic retinopathy, a cause of blindness, is often associated with the upregulation of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) in the retina. Recently, leukocyte adhesion (leukostasis) is claimed for the occlusion of retinal capillary vascularity, which ultimately assists in the progression of diabetic retinopathy. In addition, intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1), a representative factor for leukostasis, is increased in diabetic retina. Endothelin (ET)-1, a potent vasoconstrictor peptide, is closely linked to the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. Different therapeutic interventions concerning VEGF have already been proposed to prevent diabetic retinopathy. However, no study has yet reported concerning the effects of ET-1 receptor antagonist on the upregulated VEGF and ICAM-1 in morphologically intact diabetic retina. The current study investigated the effect of ET(A) receptor antagonist (TA-0201; 1 mg kg(-1) day(-1)) on the expressions of VEGF and ICAM-1 in rat diabetic retina. Diabetes was induced by intraperitoneal injection of streptozotocin (70 mg/kg) in Sprague-Dawley rats, whereas control rats (Cont) received only citrate buffer. After 1 week, the streptozotocin-administered rats were randomly divided into two groups: ET(A) receptor antagonist-treated group (DM+TA-0201) and saline-treated group (DM+vehicle). After the treatment for 4 weeks, the retina was removed from the eyeball. In DM+vehicle group, the VEGF expression of retina was significantly increased (33.5 pg/mg) in comparison with that in the Cont group (25.1 pg/mg), and the upregulation of VEGF was reversed in DM+TA-0201 group (26.9 pg/mg), a phenomenon consistent with the change in VEGF mRNA levels. The expression of retinal ICAM-1 was increased in DM+vehicle group (55.1 pg/mg) compared with Cont group (43.8 pg/mg), and ET antagonism completely blocked this increase (43.8 pg/mg). Moreover, an increased leukostasis by 3.3-fold in DM+vehicle retina was returned to the control level by ET antagonism. In the current study, there was no obvious retinal morphological alteration from both the hematoxylin and eosin staining and the FITC-dextran angiography. Thus, ET(A) receptor antagonist might be useful in preventing the progression of diabetic retinopathy, as evidenced by suppressing the increase in VEGF and ICAM-1 levels as well as leukostasis in morphologically intact diabetic retina.

Role of protein kinase C on the alteration of retinal endothelin-1 in streptozotocin-induced diabetic rats

Activation of protein kinase C (PKC) has been implicated in the pathogenesis of diabetic retinopathy. The purpose of this study was to investigate the role of PKC on the alteration of retinal endothelin-1 in 2-week streptozotocin (STZ)-induced diabetic rats. The measurement of retinal PKC activities from membranous and cytosolic fractions was conducted by ELISA. Retinal tissues were analysed for the expression of endothelin-1 (ET-1), endothelin-3 (ET-3), endothelin-A (ET-A), and endothelin-B (ET-B) mRNA by means of semi-quantitative RT-PCR. Retinal vasculature isolated by trypsin digest technique was immunostained for ET-1. We followed the alteration of retinal ET-1 after intravitreal injection of a general PKC inhibitor, GF109203X, in 2-week diabetic rats. Retinal PKC specific activities were significantly increased by 37% (P=0.027) in the membranous fraction in diabetic rats compared with normal rats, whereas PKC specific activities in the cytosolic fraction were unchanged. The retina from the diabetic rats showed increased ET-1 mRNA expression after 2 weeks, while no changes were found for ET-3, ET-A and ET-B. ET-1 immunoreactivity was also increased in the retinal vasculature of diabetic rats. Retinal ET-1 expression was decreased after intravitreal injection of GF109203X (10(-5), 10(-6), 10(-7) M) in a dose-dependent manner. The results from this study showed that the enhanced ET-1 expression associated with the activation of PKC has occurred in early diabetes, and PKC inhibitor could reverse the up regulation of ET-1.

Vascular endothelial growth factor in diabetes induced early retinal abnormalities

Increased vascular permeability and blood flow alterations are characteristic features of diabetic retinal microangiopathy. The present study investigated vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and its interactions with endothelin (ET) 1 and 3, endothelial, and inducible nitric oxide synthase (eNOS, iNOS) in mediating diabetes induced retinal vascular dysfunction. Male Sprague Dawley rats with streptozotocin (STZ) induced diabetes, with or without VEGF receptor signal inhibitor SU5416 treatment (high or low dose) were investigated after 4 weeks of follow-up. Colour Doppler ultrasound of the ophthalmic/central retinal artery, retinal tissue analysis with competitive RT-PCR and microvascular permeability were studied. Diabetes caused increased microvascular permeability along with increased VEGF mRNA expression. Increased vascular permeability was prevented by SU5416 treatment. Diabetic animals showed higher resistivity index (RI), indicative of vasoconstriction with increased ET-1 and ET-3 mRNA expression, whereas eNOS and iNOS mRNA expressions were un-affected. SU5416 treatment corrected increased RI via increased iNOS in spite of increased ET-1, ET-3 and VEGF mRNA expression. Cell culture (HUVEC) studies indicate that in part, an SU5416 induced iNOS upregulation may be mediated though a MAP kinase signalling pathway. The present data suggest VEGF is important in mediating both vasoconstriction and permeability in the retina in early diabetes.

Endothelins in chronic diabetic complications

Endothelins are widely distributed in the body and perform several vascular and nonvascular functions. Experimental data indicate abnormalities of the endothelin system in several organs affected in chronic diabetic complications. In support of this notion, it has been shown that endothelin-receptor antagonists prevent structural and functional abnormalities in target organs of diabetic complications in animal models. Alterations of plasma endothelin levels have also been demonstrated in human diabetes. This review discusses the role of endothelins in the pathogenesis of chronic diabetic complications. The current experimental evidence suggests that endothelin-receptor antagonism may potentially be an adjuvant therapeutic tool in the treatment of chronic diabetic complications.

High glucose-induced, endothelin-dependent fibronectin synthesis is mediated via NF-kappa B and AP-1

Human endothelial cells cultured under high glucose (HG) conditions were shown before to upregulate several basement membrane proteins, including fibronectin (FN), thus mimicking effects of diabetes. Using human macrovascular (HUVEC) and microvascular (HMEC) endothelial cell lines, we evaluated in the present study some of the key molecular signaling events involved in HG-induced FN overexpression. This expression was shown to be dependent on endogenous endothelin (ET) receptor-mediated signaling. We also examined the roles played by protein kinase C (PKC) and the transcription factors nuclear factor kappaB (NF-kappaB) and activating protein (AP)-1 with respect to such changes. HG, PKC activators, and ETs (ET-1 and ET-3) that increased FN expression also caused activation of NF-kappaB and AP-1. Inhibitors of both NF-kappaB and AP-1 prevented HG- and ET-induced FN production. ET receptor blockade also prevented these HG- and ET-mediated changes. The results of this study indicate that glucose-induced increased FN production in diabetes may be mediated via ET-dependent NF-kappaB and AP-1 activation.

Endothelin: is it a contributor to glaucoma pathophysiology?

Endothelin is a vasoactive peptide that has been shown to play an important role in vascular homeostasis. Recently, endothelin and its receptors have been found in ocular tissues where it appears to have a regulatory function. Endothelin is found in both the aqueous and vitreous humors and its concentration is elevated in glaucoma patients and in animal models of glaucoma. In the current review, the authors present information about the distribution of endothelin and endothelin receptors in the eye and the ocular actions of endothelins. Specifically, endothelin/aqueous humor dynamics, endothelin/nitric oxide interactions, endothelin and ischemia, and endothelin/optic nerve head effects. Observations concerning the potential role of endothelin in glaucoma pathophysiology is presented and discussed relative to its effects on the optic nerve head and in relation to glaucoma theories.

Therapeutic potential of endothelin receptor antagonists in diabetes

Endothelins (ETs) are widely distributed in the body and perform several vascular and non-vascular functions. Experimental evidence indicates that abnormalities of the ET system occur in several organs affected in chronic diabetic complications. Furthermore, ET antagonists were found to prevent structural and functional changes in the target organs of chronic diabetic complications in animal models. Abnormalities of plasma ET levels have also been demonstrated in human diabetes. This review discusses the role of ET in the pathogenesis of chronic diabetic complications. The current experimental evidence suggests that ET antagonism may potentially represent an adjuvant therapeutic tool in the treatment of chronic diabetic complications.

Role of vasoactive factors in the pathogenesis of early changes in diabetic retinopathy

Several interactive and mutually perpetuating abnormal biochemical pathways, such as protein kinase C (PKC) activation, augmented polyol pathway, and non-enzymatic glycation, may be activated as a result of sustained hyperglycemia in diabetes. These abnormal pathways may in turn influence several vasoactive factors, which are probably instrumental in the production of functional and morphological changes in the retina in diabetes. The vasoactive factors such as endothelins, nitric oxide, vascular endothelial growth factors, etc., are of importance in mediating functional and structural alterations in early diabetic retinopathy. Intricate and interactive regulatory mechanism(s) among these factors may control ultimate availability of these molecules to produce biologically significant effects. A better understanding of these factors and their interactions would aid the development of adjuvant therapies for the treatment of diabetic retinopathy.