[Interferon and retinal vasculitis]

Uveitic macular edema

Macular edema (ME) may complicate anterior, intermediate, and posterior uveitis, which may be because of various infectious, neoplastic or autoimmune etiologies. BRB breakdown is involved in the pathogenesis of Uveitic ME (UME). Optical coherence tomography has become a standard tool to confirm the diagnosis of macular thickening, due to its non-invasive, reproducible, and sensitive features. Retinal fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography is helpful to study the macula and screen for associated vasculitis, detect ischemic areas and preretinal, prepapillary or choroidal neovascular complications, and it may provide information about the etiology and be needed to assess the therapeutic response. UME due to an infection or neoplastic infiltration may require a specific treatment. If it remains persistent or occurs in other etiologies, immunomodulatory treatments may be needed. Intravitreal, subconjunctival, or subtenon corticosteroids are widely used. Their local use is contraindicated in glaucoma patients and limited by their short-lasting action. In case of bilateral sight-threatening chronic posterior uveitis, systemic treatments are usually needed, and corticosteroids are used as the standard first-line therapy. In order to reduce the daily steroid dose, immunosuppressive or immunomodulatory agents may be added, some of them being now available intravitreally. Ongoing prospective studies are assessing biotherapies and immunomodulators to determine their safety and efficacy in this indication.

[Uveitic macular edema]

Macular edema may complicate anterior, intermediate, and posterior uveitis, which may be due to various infectious, tumoral, or autoimmune etiologies. Breakdown of the internal or external blood-retinal barrier is involved in the pathogenesis of inflammatory macular edema. Optical coherence tomography has become standard in confirming the diagnosis of macular thickening, due to its non-invasive, reproducible and sensitivity characteristics. Fluorescein and indocyanine green angiography allows for, in addition to study of the macula, screening for associated vasculitis, detection of ischemic areas, easy diagnosis of preretinal, prepaillary or choroidal neovascular complications, and it can provide etiological information and may be required to evaluate the therapeutic response. Treatment of inflammatory macular edema requires specific treatment in cases of infectious or tumoral etiologies. If it remains persistent, or occurs in other etiologies, anti-inflammatory treatments are needed. Steroid treatment, available in intravitreal, subconjunctival and sub-Tenon's routes, are widely used. Limitations of local use include induced cataract and glaucoma, and their short-lasting action. Such products may reveal retinal infection. Thus, bilateral chronic sight-threatening posterior uveitis often requires systemic treatment, and steroids represent the classic first-line therapy. In order to reduce the daily steroid dose, immunosuppressant or immunomodulatory drugs may be added. Certain of these compounds are now available intravitreally.

Biologic response modifiers in retinal vasculitis

Intraocular inflammation is an important cause of blindness both in the developing and developed world. Corticosteroids play a pivotal role in the treatment of intraocular inflammation. Lately, therapy by immunosuppression has taken the center stage for patients with severe intraocular inflammation. However, the side effects of immunosuppressive drugs are oncogenic, infectious, and hematological. Recently, biologic response modifiers specifically targeting suppression of the immune effector responses have revolutionized the treatment of intraocular inflammation. Anti-tumour necrosis factor agents are etanercept, infliximab, and adalimumab. Newer drugs include certolizumab and golimumab. Infliximab has been found to be superior to corticosteroids in treating retinal vasculitis. Anti-interlenkin therapies include rituximab, daclizumab, anakinra, tocilizumab and secukinumab. Rituximab has been proven to be quite effective. Other biologics used are interferons and abatacept. However, there are several limitations and side effects associated with their use.