The structure of Antonovsky's Orientation to Life Questionnaire

Sense of coherence, its components and depressive and anxiety symptoms in expecting women and their partners - A FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study

OBJECTIVE

Expecting mothers with high sense of coherence (SOC) exhibit improved physical, emotional, and childbearing health. However, the dimensions of SOC and the factor structure of the SOC-13 scale during prenatal period is slightly known. Especially the differences in experiencing SOC and its components (comprehensibility, manageability, meaningfulness) among both expecting parents (mothers and fathers) is poorly understood. The association between SOC and mood disorder symptoms (depression and anxiety) during pregnancy is scarcely studied.

METHODS

The structure of the SOC-13 scale, differences in SOC experiences, and the associations between SOC and depressive and anxiety symptoms were studied in a sample of 2784 pregnant women (mothers) and 1661 men/partners (fathers) belonging to the FinnBrain Birth Cohort Study. Self-reports (SOC-13, EPDS, SCL-90: ANX) from gestational week 24 were used. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and invariance testing was carried out to investigate the factorial structure of SOC-13 among both groups (mothers and fathers). Group comparisons were used to study differences in the level of SOC among mothers vs. fathers, low vs. high depression and anxiety subgroups, and multiparous vs. nulliparous mothers.

RESULTS

A two-factor model for SOC-13 consisting of comprehensibility-manageability and meaningfulness fitted the data best. Mothers reported higher levels of meaningfulness, whereas fathers reported higher levels of comprehensibility-manageability. SOC was significantly higher among fathers vs. mothers, but mothers with depressive symptoms reported higher SOC than fathers with depressive symptoms.

CONCLUSIONS

During pregnancy, SOC can be viewed as a two-dimensional (vs. one- or three-dimensional) concept, and mothers and fathers have differences in the components of SOC. Importantly, mothers vs. fathers with depressive symptoms express higher overall SOC indicating that pregnancy may relate to higher than usual SOC especially among women with psychological distress. Understanding how expecting mothers and fathers experience SOC during pregnancy, particularly in relation to depressive symptoms, helps midwives and maternity care providers to focus health promoting support more precisely.

Analysis of the psychometric properties of the Sense of Coherence scale (SOC-13) in patients with cardiovascular risk factors: a study of the method effects associated with negatively worded items

Purpose

The objectives of this study were to analyze the psychometric properties of the Sense of Coherence scale (SOC-13), determine the role of the method effect in the performance of the instrument, and identify the relationship with health perception, quality of life, and sleep quality in patients at cardiovascular risk.

Methods

The final sample consisted of 293 patients at cardiovascular risk, with a mean age of 61.9 years (SD = 8.8), 49.8% of whom were women. The SOC-13, the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9), and the Medical Outcomes Study-Sleep Scale (MOS-Sleep) were administered. In addition, the participant's self-perceived health and quality of life were also evaluated. All analyses were carried out with SPSS 26.0 and EQS 6.1 statistical software.

Results

The results showed adequate reliability for the SOC-13, with a Cronbach's alpha of .789. The fit of the structures was not adequate in any of the cases (.26 to .62 for one factor, .26 to.73 for three factors, .20 to .54 for one second-order factor, and .25, .42, and .54 for three first-order factors). The three structure models showed an improved fit when adding a latent factor resulting from the method effect (.6 to .85 for one factor, .11 to.90 for three factors, and .11 to .96 for one second-order factor). Moreover, positive correlations were found with health perception, perceived quality of life, and perceived sleep quality.

Conclusion

The SOC-13 is a suitable instrument for patients with cardiovascular risk in Spain, and it is also an indicator of health perception, quality of life, and perceived quality of sleep. Control of the method effect improves the fit of the instrument’s structure. As a future direction, it is recommended to conduct new studies in this and other samples and using different versions of the SOC.

Trial registration

International Standard Randomized Controlled Trial Number: ISRCTN76069254, 08/04/2015 retrospectively registered.

Can We Rely on Self-Assessments of Sense of Coherence? The Effects of Socially Desirable Responding on the Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ) Responses

A large number of studies in health psychology have shown that sense of coherence (SOC) is an essential factor in wellbeing and health. SOC is most commonly measured with the Antonovsky’s Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ), which has been so far translated into at least 48 languages. Despite the vast popularity of the OLQ, the relationships between OLQ and socially desirable responding (impression management and self-deception) have not been studied. The purpose of the present study was to investigate the correlations between social desirability and Antonovsky’s OLQ. Method: The first sample consisted of 423 students who completed the 13-item OLQ and the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ), including the Lie scale. Also, the Balanced Inventory for Desirable Responding by Paulhus was administered together with the OLQ to 202 students. Results: SOC correlated positively with measures of social desirability among men but not among women. Hence, sex moderated the relationship between socially desirable responding and sense of coherence. Conclusions: Socially desirable responding and, especially, self-deception are positively related to high scores in SOC among men but not among women. The OLQ as a measure of sense of coherence can be used among women without worrying about the bias caused by socially desirable responding. When using the OLQ among men, the strong relationship between self-deception and sense of coherence should be taken into account.

Cross-Cultural Evaluation of Antonovsky’s Orientation to Life Questionnaire: Comparison Between Australian, Finnish, and Turkish Young Adults

Antonovsky’s concept “sense of coherence” (SOC) and the related measurement instrument “The Orientation to Life Questionnaire” (OLQ) has been widely applied in studies on health and well-being. The purpose of the present study is to investigate the cultural differences in factor structures and psychometric properties as well as mean scores of the 13-item form of Antonovsky’s OLQ among Australian (n = 201), Finnish (n = 203), and Turkish (n = 152) students. Three models of factor structure were studied by using confirmatory factor analysis: single-factor model, first-order correlated-three-factor model, and the second-order three-factor model. Results obtained in all three countries suggest that the first- and second-order three-factor models fitted the data better that the single-factor model. Hence, the OLQ scoring based on comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness scales was supported. Scale reliabilities and inter-correlations were in line with those reported in earlier studies. Two-way analyses of variance (gender × nationality) with age as a covariate showed no cultural differences in SOC scale scores. Women got higher scores on the meaningfulness scale than men, and age was positively related to all SOC scale scores indicating that SOC increases in early adulthood. The results support the three-factor model of OLQ which thus should be used in Australia, Finland, and Turkey instead of a single-factor model. Need for cross-cultural studies taking into account cultural correlates of SOC and its relation to health and well-being indicators as well as studies on gender differences in the OLQ are emphasized.

Are Three Items Sufficient to Measure Sense of Coherence?

Abstract. The present study aimed at evaluating if the three-item sense of coherence (SOC) scale developed by Lundberg and Nystrom Peck (1995) can be effectively used for research purpose in both nonclinical and clinical samples. To provide evidence that it represents adequately the measured construct we tested its validity in a nonclinical (N = 658) and clinical sample (N = 764 patients with cancer). Results obtained in the nonclinical sample attested a positive relation of SOC – as measured by the three-item SOC scale – with Antonovsky’s 13-item and 29-item SOC scales (convergent validity), and with dispositional optimism, sense of mastery, anxiety, and depression symptoms (concurrent validity). Results obtained in the clinical sample confirmed the criterion validity of the scale attesting the positive role of SOC – as measured by the three-item SOC scale – on the person’s capacity to respond to illness and treatment. The current study provides evidence that the three-item SOC scale is a valid, low-loading, and time-saving instrument for research purposes on large sample.

Correlates of Quality of Life in Older Adult Veterans

The purpose of this correlational study was to test theoretical propositions describing positive relationships between health promotion, sense of coherence, personal autonomy, and quality of life in older adult veterans and to explore their overall contribution to the prediction of quality of life. The sample consisted of 135 veterans aged 65 to 85 years who completed the Health-Promoting Lifestyle Profile, the Sense of Coherence-13 Scale, the Perceived Enactment of Autonomy Scale, and the Quality of Life Profile: Seniors Version, Short Scale. Health-promoting lifestyle, sense of coherence, and autonomy were positively correlated to quality of life. When the independent variables were subjected to a regression analysis, health-promoting lifestyle and autonomy explained 38% of the variance in quality of life.

An online guided ACT intervention for enhancing the psychological wellbeing of university students: A randomized controlled clinical trial

Stress, anxiety and depression are relatively common problems among university students. This study examined whether an online psychological intervention aiming at enhancing the wellbeing of university students could be an effective and practical alternative for meeting the needs of a university population. University students (N = 68; 85% female; 19-32 years old) were randomly assigned to either a guided seven-week online Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (iACT) intervention or a waiting list control condition (WLC). A between-groups pre-post (iACT vs WLC) design with 12-month follow-up for the iACT participants was conducted. The intervention participants were offered two face-to-face meetings, completed online exercises during a five-week period, and received personal weekly written feedback via the website from their randomly assigned, trained student coaches. Waitlist participants were offered the intervention program soon after the post measurements. Results in this small efficacy trial showed that the iACT participants had significantly higher gains in wellbeing (between group, d = 0.46), life satisfaction (d = 0.65), and mindfulness skills (d = 0.49). In addition, iACT participants' self-reported stress (d = 0.54) and symptoms of depression (d = 0.69) were significantly reduced compared to the participants in the control group. These benefits were maintained over a 12-month follow-up period (within iACT group, d = 0.65-0.69, for primary measures). The results suggest that an online-based, coach-guided ACT program with blended face-to-face and online sessions could be an effective and well-accepted alternative for enhancing the wellbeing of university students.

Measurement properties of the 13-item sense of coherence scale using Rasch analysis

PURPOSE

The sense of coherence (SOC) scale is widely used and has an extensive history in research. The psychometric properties of the SOC scale have been investigated using classic test theory, but modern test theory enables a more multifaceted investigation of the properties of the SOC scale. The aim of this study was to explore the measurement properties of the SOC scale using the Rasch measurement model.

METHODS

SOC questionnaires from a sample of 623 healthy adults were analysed using Rasch analysis. Aspects analysed were rating scale functioning, item fit, unidimensionality, differential item functioning (DIF), targeting, and reliability.

RESULTS

Rating scale analysis showed that the seven scale steps were not utilized in the intended manner and that a shortening to five categories would be beneficial. Twelve out of the 13 items showed acceptable goodness-of-fit and 43% of the variance was explained by the SOC dimension in the principal components analysis. There was no DIF between subgroups in the sample. The items were well targeted to the sample SOC level with no ceiling or floor effects. Item and person reliability were good and the person separation index was 2.05 indicating that the scale can separate three different levels of SOC, which corresponds well to its theoretical base.

CONCLUSIONS

The SOC scale is generally well functioning; however, the three components of SOC seem to influence the PCA results. The scale would benefit from a reduction from seven to five scale steps, which would need to be investigated further.

The significance of the sense of coherence for various coping resources in stress situations used by police officers in on-the-beat service

BACKGROUND

Police officers meet many stressors as part of their occupation. The psychological resource "sense of coherence" (SOC) protects against ill-health, but its impact on coping resources for stress situations has not been studied in the population of police officers. Different approaches to investigate the significance of SOC for different outcomes have been identified in literature, leading to some difficulties in the interpretation and generalization of results. The aim was therefore to explore SOC and the coping resources, and to examine the significance of SOC for various coping resources for stress using different models in a sample of Swedish police officers providing on-the-beat service.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

One hundred and one police officers (age: mean = 33 years, SD = 8; 29 females) were included, and the Orientation to Life Questionnaire (SOC-29) and the Coping Resources Inventory (CRI) were used. The dependent variable in each regression analysis was one of the coping resources: cognitive, social, emotional, spiritual/philosophical, physical, and a global resource. Global SOC-29 and/or its components (comprehensibility, manageability, and meaningfulness) were investigated as independent variables.

RESULTS

All CRI and SOC-29 scores except for that of spiritual/philosophical resources were higher than those of reference groups. Manageability was the most important component of SOC for various coping resources in stress situations used by police officers.

CONCLUSION

A deeper study of manageability will give useful information, because this component of SOC is particularly significant in the variation in resources used by police officers to cope with stress. Salutogenesis, the origin of well-being, should be more in focus of future research on workplaces with a high level of occupational stress.

Older adults' spirituality and life satisfaction: a longitudinal test of social support and sense of coherence as mediating mechanisms

Spirituality is proposed to be a component of successful ageing and has been shown to predict wellbeing in old age. There has been conceptual discussion of possible mechanisms that link spirituality with positive psychological functioning in older adults, but few empirical examinations of these linking mechanisms over time. The current study examined the role of Antonovsky's Sense of Coherence (SOC) and social support in mediating the effects of spirituality on life satisfaction in older participants over a four-year period. The study used a cross-lagged panel analysis to evaluate longitudinal mediation within a path analysis framework. Results showed that the meaningfulness dimension of SOC mediated the influence of spirituality on life satisfaction over time, suggesting that spirituality may influence older adults' experience and perception of life events, leading to a more positive appraisal of these events as meaningful. Social support was not found to mediate the pathway between spirituality and life satisfaction. This study may be the first to examine the link between spirituality, sense of coherence, social support and wellbeing, as measured by life satisfaction, using longitudinal data from a community sample of older adults. The study provides evidence for the positive role of spirituality in the lives of older people. This is an area that requires further examination in models of successful ageing.

Psychometric properties of the OLQ-13 scale to measure Sense of Coherence in a community-dwelling older population

BACKGROUND

With the ongoing demographic shift, the quality of life and health promotion among older individuals are becoming increasingly important. Recent research suggests that Sense of Coherence positively affects quality of life. Hence, a valid and reliable measurement of Sense of Coherence is pivotal. The 13-item Orientation to Life Questionnaire (OLQ-13) can be used to measure Sense of Coherence. The purpose of the present study is to assess the psychometric properties, validity, and reliability, of the OLQ-13 in community-dwelling individuals, aged 65 and older.

METHODS

The OLQ-13 scale was administered as part of a healthy aging project for non-institutionalized people aged 65 years and older. Internal consistency and reliability were assessed by means of inter-item and test-halves correlations and Cronbach's alpha. Construct validity was explored using cluster analysis and exploratory factor analysis (n = 703) and tested using confirmatory factor analysis on a separate subset of individuals (n = 658). Item face validity was investigated by means of 12 semi-structured interviews.

RESULTS

The reliability and the validity of the OLQ-13 in this population of non-institutionalized individuals aged 65 years and older was ambiguous, at least partly due to the poor performance of two items (b and d), which was confirmed by results from the qualitative part of this study. The psychometric properties of the proposed OLQ-11, obtained by deleting the two items, were better. In particular, the interpretation of exploratory factor solution improved. Whereas the underlying theoretical constructs could not be linked to the exploratory analyses of OLQ-13, this was to some extent possible in OLQ-11. The superior validity of OLQ-11 over OLQ-13 was supported by the better model fit in the confirmatory factor analysis.

CONCLUSIONS

The present mixed-method study suggests the proposed OLQ-11 as a more suitable instrument for measuring Sense of Coherence than the OLQ-13 in a population of ageing individuals. This study confirms that the validity and reliability of OLQ-13 may differ substantially in different populations.

Development of sense of coherence in adulthood: a person-centered approach. The population-based HeSSup cohort study

OBJECTIVE

We sought to identify the most typical patterns of change in sense of coherence (SOC) in adulthood.

METHODS

This prospective population-based Health and Social Support (HeSSup) study was based on four age cohorts including men and women initially aged 20-24 years (n = 4,682), 30-34 years (n = 4,248), 40-44 years (n = 4,598), and 50-54 years (n = 4,997). SOC was assessed at baseline and at the 5-year follow-up point. Factor Mixture Modeling was used to identify the latent classes of persons whose mean changes in SOC were similar over time.

RESULTS

Three development classes were supported by the data. In all age cohorts, the largest class consisted of those people whose SOC was high at baseline and increased thereafter (46-58% of participants depending on the age group). A class of high SOC with a decreasing trend and that of low SOC with an increasing trend were also found. In all age groups, the rank-order stability was high in the first development class (0.84-0.98) but low in other classes (0.35-0.44).

CONCLUSION

This analysis shows continuous increase in the level of SOC over time to be common in adulthood, irrespective of age. High SOC, rather than higher age, seems to determine a stable development of the SOC.

Sense of coherence and its association with exposure to traumatic events, posttraumatic stress disorder, and depression in eastern Democratic Republic of Congo

The Democratic Republic of Congo is the scene of some of the worst atrocities in recent history. However, in the face of traumatic experience, only a minority of people develops symptoms that impair their functioning. The sense of coherence proposed by Antonovsky (1987) is a theoretical construct reflecting an individual's overall wellbeing and ability to cope with stress. This study explores the relationships between sense of coherence, exposure to traumatic events, symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and depression. Results suggest an association between a high sense of coherence and high education levels, high income, and positive social relationships. Furthermore, the study found that sense of coherence is inversely correlated with cumulative exposure to violence and symptoms of PTSD and depression.

Older people's sense of coherence: relationships with education, former occupation and living arrangements

Few studies have explored the combination of individual and contextual conditions that influence psychological health among older people. This study aimed to analyse the sense of coherence (SOC) in a sample of Italian senior citizens in relation to gender, educational level, living arrangements and former employment, when controlling for age. The short version of the SOC scale (Antonovsky 1987), which has items for the ‘comprehensibility’, ‘manageability’ and ‘meaningfulness’ components, was administered to a sample of 198 senior citizens of both genders and with an average age of 68.5 years. The findings showed that: (a) senior citizens with a higher level of education and who had retired from jobs with a high level of responsibility perceived reality as more controllable, manageable and meaningful; (b) with greater age, the perception that life's challenges are worth facing decreased; and (c) there was an interaction between living arrangements and education level,viz. those with higher education, and those with lower education living with a spouse or partner, perceived reality as more meaningful and their life challenges as worth facing. It is important to investigate further the activities that help maintain a high sense of coherence throughout the life span, and to design social policies that support senior citizens who live alone, because they appear psychologically weaker than others.

The influence of cancer-related distress and sense of coherence on anxiety and depression in patients with hereditary cancer: a study of patients' sense of coherence 6 months after genetic counseling

This study examines the association between Sense of Coherence and anxiety and depression amongst patients at risk of hereditary cancer receiving genetic counseling. When writing this article, 144 patients referred for genetic counseling due to a suspicion of hereditary cancer in the family were recruited for this multicentered longitudinal study on the psychosocial aspects of genetic counseling in Norway. A total of 96 (66%) patients responded to the follow-up survey distributed 6 months after genetic counseling. This survey included the Sense of Coherence-29 Scale, Impact of Event Scale, and Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale. Multiple regression analyses were applied. Our results show association between cancer-related distress and symptoms of anxiety and depression. Sense of Coherence is significantly associated with both anxiety and depression. The hypothesis of Sense of Coherence buffering cancer-related distress and the possible impact of these findings for genetic counseling are discussed.

Factorial invariance of the 13-item Sense of Coherence scale across gender

This study examined the gender invariance of the 13-item Sense of Coherence (SOC) scale. Confirmatory factor analyses indicated that a single factor model with one pair of correlated errors fit the data well. Invariance testing indicated that the scale is both congeneric and tau equivalent, meaning that a single latent SOC construct holds equally well for males and females, and that both genders demonstrate an equivalent pattern of factor loadings. There was little evidence in support of latent factor mean equivalence across gender. Explanations for the lack of factor mean equivalence were discussed and recommendations for future research were suggested.

Sense of Coherence and Five-Factor Approach to Personality

Abstract. In the present study we analyzed the conceptual relationship of sense of coherence (SOC) to the five-factor model of personality (FFM; i.e., Neuroticism, Extraversion, Openness to Experience, Conscientiousness, Agreeableness). Participants (109 men, 114 women) were drawn from the ongoing Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development (JYLS); which was started when the participants were 8 or 9-years old (in 1968): Data gathered at age 42 were used in this study. SOC was measured by the 13-item Orientation to Life Questionnaire ( Antonovsky, 1987 ) and FFM personality traits with the NEO Five-Factor Inventory (NEO-FFI; Costa & McCrae, 1989 ). The results obtained from structural equation modeling (SEM) indicated that a high SOC was strongly associated with Neuroticism (-.85). In addition, SOC showed modest positive associations with Extraversion, Openness, Conscientiousness, and Agreeableness. On the basis of the present results, it seems reasonable to assume that SOC and reversed Neuroticism (i.e., emotional stability) are closely related constructs at the conceptual, theoretical, and empirical levels.

Structure analysis of Antonovsky's sense of coherence from an epidemiological mental health survey with a brief nine-item sense of coherence scale

Antonovsky has proposed the sense of coherence (SOC) as a crucial factor that protects against symptoms of mental disease. A central issue in research on the SOC construct is whether this is most appropriately considered as one-dimensional or three-dimensional with comprehensibility (C), manageability (Ma) and meaningfulness (Me) as separate dimensions. In this paper we address this issue by means of confirmatory factor analysis of a shortened nine-item version of Antonovsky's original 29- and 13-items Sense of Coherence Scale (SOCS-29), using epidemiological data from a mental health survey of adults in local communities (N = 1,062). In addition to analysing the internal structure of the SOC items, we examine the association between estimated factor scores and variables expected to be statistically related to SOC. Goodness-of-fit indices were very good for the three-factor model but acceptable even for the one-factor model. In the three-factor model, however, the factors were found to be very highly or, with regard to Ma and C, even perfectly correlated. Moreover, the factor scores had very similar correlations with measures of psychological wellbeing, depression and anxiety and they are also very similarly related to age (and none of them are related to gender). We therefore conclude in favour of a one-factor model.

Structural validity and temporal stability of the 13-item sense of coherence scale: prospective evidence from the population-based HeSSup study

STUDY OBJECTIVE

To investigate whether the structure of Antonovsky's [Unraveling the Mystery of Health. How People Manage Stress and Stay Well. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass, 1987] 13-item Sense of Coherence (SOC) scale remains invariant across time and across age groups and whether any differences in stability of and mean changes in SOC can be seen between young people and individuals aged 30 or above.

DESIGN

Prospective study with a population-based sample of 18,525 Finns of whom 4,682 were under age 30 and 13,843 over age 30 at both the baseline and 5-year follow-up surveys (the HeSSup study).

RESULTS

Confirmatory factor analysis supported the correlated 3-factor solution for the SOC scale and its equivalent second-order factor structure at both measurement times and in both age groups. According to Structural Equation Modelling (SEM), SOC was more stable among subjects over 30 years (stability coefficient 0.81) than among younger adults (0.70). The mean level of SOC was higher among subjects over age 30 than subjects under age 30 at both times. The level of SOC increased during the follow-up period in both age groups but to a greater extent among the younger than older age group.

CONCLUSIONS

These data suggest relatively high structural validity and high stability for the 13-item SOC measure and support the notion that SOC becomes more stable following maturation. The 13-item SOC measure seems to provide a psychometrically sound survey instrument for testing Antonovsky's theory on life orientation and health.

The adult sense of coherence scale is applicable to 12-year-old schoolchildren--an additional tool in health promotion

BACKGROUND

Two principal operations of sense of coherence (SOC) for the study of adults have been developed, one consisting of 29 and another consisting of 13 items. According to these studies, SOC is associated with various aspects of perceived health. Also, a 16-item scale for determining SOC in young children (<or=10 y) is available. It is unclear from which age on SOC can be studied by using any of the scales for adults.

AIM

To determine whether the 13-item SOC scale for adults is applicable to children 12 y of age.

METHODS

Comparable data of SOC had been collected by a mail survey directed to adults (mean age 36 y, n=706) in 1985. Twelve-year-old children filled in questionnaires in school class in 1997 (n=994).

RESULTS

SOC score range, mean, median and standard deviation (SD), and Cronbach alpha coefficients of the total SOC scale were almost identical in children and adults.

CONCLUSION

The 13-item SOC scale aimed at adults is applicable to children of 12 y of age or older. The SOC scale could be a useful additional tool for identifying children with perceived health deficits potentially in need of supportive interventions.

Relationships between health domains and sense of coherence: a two-year cross-lagged study in patients with chronic illness

The latent structure of Sense of Coherence (SOC) and its relationship with three domains of health (body function, activity and participation) were studied in a cohort of people with chronic illness (n = 771) over a period of 2 years. A structural equation approach with cross-lagged and synchronous models was applied to each combination of SOC and domain of health. Over the 2-year period SOC had enhanced body function and participation. Conversely, levels of activities as well as body function had contributed to SOC 2 years later. Significant synchronous effects were found that indicated the presence of reciprocal causation between SOC and all three domains of health. These findings challenge existing SOC theory and suggest that SOC can be considered a relevant outcome variable in chronic illness care.

Measurement Invariance of the Abridged Sense of Coherence Scale in Adolescents

In the present study, the factorial structure and the degree of measurement invariance of the short form of the Sense of Coherence Scale (SOCS-13) were examined across two groups of adolescents. The sample comprised 1107 Swiss students (535 aged 14 or younger and 572 aged 15 or older). Considering a sequence of confirmatory factor models and using robust parameter estimation, results indicate that a two-factor model of sense of coherence adequately described the data. The first factor encompassed Comprehensibility and Manageability items, whereas the second factor reflected Meaningfulness. Strict measurement invariance could be established, i.e., factor loadings, latent intercepts of the manifest indicators, and residual variances were found to be equal in both age groups. In the end, students from the older age group, on average, had higher factor scores in Comprehensibility-Manageability. These findings provide support for a two-dimensional structure and complete unbiasedness of the SOCS-13 in adolescent samples differing in age.

Sense of coherence and biomarkers of health in 43-year-old women

The aim of this cross-sectional study was to investigate how sense of coherence (SOC) relates to biomarkers of health in 43-year-old nonsmoking premenopausal women. Before taking part in a standardized medical health examination including assessment of blood pressure, blood lipids, and physical symptoms, participants completed a three-item measure of SOC. On the basis of their SOC scores, the 244 women with complete datasets were categorized into 1 of 3 groups with a weak, intermediate, or strong SOC. Results showed that women with a strong SOC had significantly lower levels of systolic blood pressure (p < .05) and total cholesterol (p < .05) than did women with a weak SOC. It is suggested that the lower levels of systolic blood pressure and total cholesterol found in women with a strong SOC may constitute a biological buffer against ill health and disease.

The Relationship Between Generalized Resistance Resources, Sense of Coherence, and Health Among Finnish People Aged 65-69

Abstract. The present study investigated the appropriateness of Antonovsky's model, in which generalized resistance resources (GRRs) facilitate an individual's sense of coherence (SOC); which in turn is assumed to sustain health. The proposed model was tested using a sample of 320 Finnish persons (132 of them were men and 188 women) aged 65-69 years. The GRRs investigated were family income, cognitive functioning, years of formal education, marital status, and physical exercise. Health was measured by means of a multidimensional indicator composed of physical, social and mental health. Structural Equation Modelling (SEM) within the framework of LISREL models were used to test the hypothesized model. The results showed that good cognitive functioning and physical activity in the whole sample, and marital status in men, were associated with a strong SOC, which in turn was positively related to physical, and especially, social and mental health.

Psychological symptoms and competence at three organizational levels of industrial design: the main and moderating role of sense of coherence

This study investigated the role of the sense of coherence in occupational well-being at three organizational positions of industrial designing (top-level designers, designers, and assisting personnel). In a sample of 422 industrial design personnel, sense of coherence was positively related to competence and negatively to psychological symptoms. It also moderated the relation of autonomy to competence and psychological symptoms but more strongly among the designers and the assisting personnel than among the top-level designers. Analysis showed autonomy was beneficial for individuals who also had high scores on sense of coherence. Longitudinal studies are needed on the role of sense of coherence as regards the psychological health of different subgroups.

Meaning in life in three samples of elderly persons with high cognitive functioning

The study examined the relationships between meaning in life and cognitive functioning in three elderly samples. The participants in Sample I were 78 persons aged 82-87, in Sample II 182 persons aged 83-92, and in Sample III 299 persons aged 65-69. The samples took part in interviews and cognitive tests in 1996-1997. Several interview questions together with the Sense of Coherence questionnaire were used to study the degree and content of meaning in life. Cognitive functioning was measured by Digit Span, Digit Symbol, and Word Fluency in Sample I and Mini-D in Samples II and III. Each sample was divided into the group of persons with high cognitive functioning (including those whose results in cognitive tests fell in the top third of their age cohort) and the comparison group (including the rest of the sample). The analysis showed no difference between the groups in the degree of meaning in life in any of the three samples. The content of meaning in life differed in the two groups: human relationships were reported as a reason for meaning in life and a source of strength in life more often by the persons with high cognitive functioning than by the comparison group. Moreover, those with high cognitive functioning reported that they had taken up a new activity (especially one involving social interests) that gave a sense of meaning in life after retirement more often than the comparison group. Death had positive meaning for the majority of the participants and the groups did not differ in meaning of death. The interactions between the various measures of meaning in life showed that having a sense of coherence and zest for life were factors related to the sense of meaningfulness in life. Meaning of death was not related to other measures.

Sense of coherence and school-related stress as predictors of subjective health complaints in early adolescence: interactive, indirect or direct relationships?

The role of sense of coherence (SOC) on the relationship between adolescent school-related stress and subjective health complaints was tested with structural equation modelling. As part of the crossnational WHO-survey 'Health behaviour in school-aged children 1997/98' Norwegian representative samples of 1592 grade 6, 1534 grade 8, and 1605 grade 10 students completed measures on SOC, school-related stress and subjective health complaints. A test of nested structural models revealed that both stress-preventive (delta chi2 814. 86, p<0.001), stress-moderating (delta chi2 11.74, p<0.02) and main health-enhancing (delta chi2 1289.1, p < 0.001) effects of SOC were consistent with the data. A model including all these relationships fitted the data well (CFI = 0.91, RMSEA = 0.04). Age-group comparisons revealed that the association between SOC and stress grew weaker with age (p<0.05), whereas the direct association between SOC and health complaints grew stronger (p<0.001). The main effect of SOC accounted for between 39% (11 year olds) and 54% (15 year olds) of the variance in subjective health complaints. Findings indicate that SOC may potentially be a salutogenic factor in adolescents' adaptation to school-related stress, and that relationships between SOC and healthy adaptation, may be evident in younger age-groups than previously anticipated.

Sense of coherence and health: evidence from two cross-lagged longitudinal samples

We explored the stability of sense of coherence (SOC) and the relationship between SOC and health in two cross-lagged longitudinal samples by using structural equation modeling. In Study 1, comprising 577 municipal male and female employees, SOC was found to be stable in both sexes. In women, SOC significantly predicted sickness absences in the 4-year follow-up period. A low SOC, but not a high SOC, was associated with health prospects. Surprisingly, SOC did not influence sickness absences among men. Study 2 further tested the relationship between SOC and health in 320 male technical designers. Although SOC was cross-sectionally associated with psychological and somatic health complaints, it did not predict later health complaints in a 5-year follow-up. Thus, the present study supports the dispositional character of SOC in both sexes and its predictive validity among women. No support was found to the salutogenic status of SOC and an unexpected gender difference was revealed.