1
|
Rhee Y, Simms AT, Schoeny M, Baker AW, Baker MA, Gohil S, Rhee C, Talati NJ, Warren DK, Welbel S, Lolans K, Bell PB, Fukuda C, Hayden MK, Lin MY. Relationship between chlorhexidine gluconate concentration and microbial colonization of patients' skin. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2024:1-6. [PMID: 38804007 DOI: 10.1017/ice.2024.81] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/29/2024]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To characterize the relationship between chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) skin concentration and skin microbial colonization. DESIGN Serial cross-sectional study. SETTING/PARTICIPANTS Adult patients in medical intensive care units (ICUs) from 7 hospitals; from 1 hospital, additional patients colonized with carbapenemase-producing Enterobacterales (CPE) from both ICU and non-ICU settings. All hospitals performed routine CHG bathing in the ICU. METHODS Skin swab samples were collected from adjacent areas of the neck, axilla, and inguinal region for microbial culture and CHG skin concentration measurement using a semiquantitative colorimetric assay. We used linear mixed effects multilevel models to analyze the relationship between CHG concentration and microbial detection. We explored threshold effects using additional models. RESULTS We collected samples from 736 of 759 (97%) eligible ICU patients and 68 patients colonized with CPE. On skin, gram-positive bacteria were cultured most frequently (93% of patients), followed by Candida species (26%) and gram-negative bacteria (20%). The adjusted odds of microbial recovery for every twofold increase in CHG skin concentration were 0.84 (95% CI, 0.80-0.87; P < .001) for gram-positive bacteria, 0.93 (95% CI, 0.89-0.98; P = .008) for Candida species, 0.96 (95% CI, 0.91-1.02; P = .17) for gram-negative bacteria, and 0.94 (95% CI, 0.84-1.06; P = .33) for CPE. A threshold CHG skin concentration for reduced microbial detection was not observed. CONCLUSIONS On a cross-sectional basis, higher CHG skin concentrations were associated with less detection of gram-positive bacteria and Candida species on the skin, but not gram-negative bacteria, including CPE. For infection prevention, targeting higher CHG skin concentrations may improve control of certain pathogens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yoona Rhee
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Andrew T Simms
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Michael Schoeny
- Department of Community, Systems and Mental Health Nursing, College of Nursing, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Arthur W Baker
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
| | - Meghan A Baker
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Shruti Gohil
- Division of Infectious Diseases, University of California, Irvine School of Medicine, Irvine, CA, USA
| | - Chanu Rhee
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Boston, MA, USA
- Harvard Pilgrim Health Care Institute and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Naasha J Talati
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Penn Presbyterian Medical Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA
| | - David K Warren
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Washington University School of Medicine, St Louis, MO, USA
| | - Sharon Welbel
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Cook County Health, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Karen Lolans
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Pamela B Bell
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Christine Fukuda
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Mary K Hayden
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| | - Michael Y Lin
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Herráiz Soria E, Alou L, Martin-Villa C, Becerro-de-Bengoa-Vallejo R, Losa-Iglesias M, Sevillano D. Alcohol-Based Chlorhexidine and Potassium Sorbate Rub Strengthens the Effectiveness of Traditional Hand Scrubbing and Improves Long-Lasting Effectiveness-Evaluation of Hand Preparation Protocols According to EN 12791. Antibiotics (Basel) 2024; 13:470. [PMID: 38786198 PMCID: PMC11117658 DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics13050470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2024] [Revised: 05/17/2024] [Accepted: 05/17/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024] Open
Abstract
Despite the advantages of surgical handrub in terms of the ease of application and effectiveness, chlorhexidine (CHG)-based hand scrubbing remains the preferred method for surgical hand preparation. However, it does not systematically meet the non-inferiority requirement of the European norm (EN) 12791 with respect to n-propanol (the reference product) and does not provide the sustained efficacy expected for these long-lasting agents. Commercially available alcohol-based products have also failed to demonstrate sustained efficacy according to EN 12791. Multi-step protocols enhance the efficacy of hand scrubbing, yet their extended disinfection duration might diminish their allure for healthcare professionals. In this study, we show that hand scrubbing with CHG 4% followed by a 1 min rubbing with the novel formulation of ethanol (Et) 70%/CHG 3% plus 0.3% potassium sorbate food additive (PS) meets the non-inferiority requirement and demonstrates sustained efficacy when tested according to EN 12791. The immediate and 3 h effect of this protocol was significantly higher than that of n-propanol and the homologous disinfection protocol without PS (CHG 4% hand scrub plus Et 70%/CHG 3% rub), demonstrating that the inclusion of PS confers a notable residual effect. We speculate that this non-volatile ingredient acts synergistically with CHG. This promising combination represents an alternative method for the development of new disinfection strategies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Herráiz Soria
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Madrid, Spain; (E.H.S.); (M.L.-I.)
| | - Luis Alou
- Microbiology Area-Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| | - Carlos Martin-Villa
- Faculty of Nursing, Physiotherapy and Podiatry, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; (C.M.-V.); (R.B.-d.-B.-V.)
| | | | - Marta Losa-Iglesias
- Faculty of Health Sciences, Universidad Rey Juan Carlos, 28933 Madrid, Spain; (E.H.S.); (M.L.-I.)
| | - David Sevillano
- Microbiology Area-Medicine Department, School of Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain;
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Viljoen H, Schoeman JP, Fosgate GT, Boucher C. Comparative antimicrobial efficacy of 4 surgical hand-preparation procedures prior to application of an alcohol-based hand rub in veterinary students. Vet Surg 2022; 51:447-454. [PMID: 35192206 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.13783] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2021] [Revised: 01/23/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine the influence of skin preparations before application of an alcohol-based hand rub (ABHR) on bacterial counts before and after elective surgery. STUDY DESIGN Clinical prospective study. SAMPLE POPULATION Veterinary students (n = 103) performing ovariohysterectomies on 140 dogs. METHODS Participants were randomly assigned to 1 initial surgical preparation on the day of surgery: A - hand preparation with medicated solution (4% w/v chlorhexidine bigluconate followed by an ABHR; B - application of a medication solution (benzalkonium chloride 0.1%-1% and polymeric biguanide hydrochloride 0.01%-0.1%) followed by an ABHR; C - nonmedicated pH-neutral soap hand wash followed by ABHR, and D - direct application of an ABHR. Samples were taken by pressing the distal finger tips to an agar plate before the hand preparation, after the hand preparation (n = 3), after ABHR application, and 120 minutes later. Colony-forming units (CFUs) for samples were determined. Total log CFU and CFU log10 reduction were calculated and used for comparison with P < .05. RESULTS Two hours after surgery commenced, the participants of groups that performed a hand preparation had lower total CFUs than those that did not perform a hand preparation (P = .001). In particular, the number of CFUs was lower when ABHR was performed after application of pHN compared to direct ABHR (P = .001). CONCLUSION In this population, performing a hand preparation with pHN prior to applying an ABHR had better antimicrobial effect for the duration of surgery than not performing a hand preparation. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE Surgeons should wash their hands prior to ABHR before starting their first surgery of the day, even when hands appear clean.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hermien Viljoen
- Department of Companion Animal, Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary, Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Johan P Schoeman
- Department of Companion Animal, Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary, Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Geoffrey T Fosgate
- Epidemiology Section, Department of Production Animal Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Charles Boucher
- Department of Companion Animal, Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary, Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Integrated genomic, epidemiologic investigation of Candida auris skin colonization in a skilled nursing facility. Nat Med 2021; 27:1401-1409. [PMID: 34155414 DOI: 10.1038/s41591-021-01383-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 26.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Candida auris is a fungal pathogen of high concern due to its ability to cause healthcare-associated infections and outbreaks, its resistance to antimicrobials and disinfectants and its persistence on human skin and in the inanimate environment. To inform surveillance and future mitigation strategies, we defined the extent of skin colonization and explored the microbiome associated with C. auris colonization. We collected swab specimens and clinical data at three times points between January and April 2019 from 57 residents (up to ten body sites each) of a ventilator-capable skilled nursing facility with endemic C. auris and routine chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) bathing. Integrating microbial-genomic and epidemiologic data revealed occult C. auris colonization of multiple body sites not targeted commonly for screening. High concentrations of CHG were associated with suppression of C. auris growth but not with deleterious perturbation of commensal microbes. Modeling human mycobiome dynamics provided insight into underlying alterations to the skin fungal community as a possible modifiable risk factor for acquisition and persistence of C. auris. Failure to detect the extensive, disparate niches of C. auris colonization may reduce the effectiveness of infection-prevention measures that target colonized residents, highlighting the importance of universal strategies to reduce C. auris transmission.
Collapse
|
5
|
Biermann NM, McClure JT, Doyle AJ. Letter to the Editor: Response to letter regarding: Prospective, randomised clinical trial of four different presurgical hand antiseptic techniques in equine surgery. Equine Vet J 2019; 52:158-159. [PMID: 31552679 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13167] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2019] [Accepted: 07/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N M Biermann
- University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - J T McClure
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
| | - A J Doyle
- Atlantic Veterinary College, University of Prince Edward Island, Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Kampf G, Verwilghen D. Letter to the Editor: Prospective, randomised clinical trial of four different presurgical hand antiseptic techniques in equine surgery. Equine Vet J 2019; 51:705. [PMID: 31373056 DOI: 10.1111/evj.13139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- G Kampf
- University Medicine Greifswald, Institute for Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, Greifswald, Germany
| | - D Verwilghen
- School of Veterinary Sciences, Faculty of Science, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Kampf G. Adaptive bacterial response to low level chlorhexidine exposure and its implications for hand hygiene. MICROBIAL CELL 2019; 6:307-320. [PMID: 31294043 PMCID: PMC6600115 DOI: 10.15698/mic2019.07.683] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Chlorhexidine digluconate (CHG) is commonly used in healthcare, e.g. in skin antiseptics, antimicrobial soaps, alcohol-based hand rubs and oral or wound antiseptics. Aim of the literature review was to evaluate the potential of bacteria to adapt to low level CHG exposure. A maximum 4fold MIC increase to CHG was found after low level exposure in most of the 71 evaluated bacterial species. A strong adaptive mostly stable MIC change was described in strains or isolates of the healthcare-associated species E. coli, S. marcescens and P. aeruginosa (up to 500fold, 128fold or 32fold, respectively). The highest MIC values after adaptation were 2,048 mg/l (S. marcescens) and 1,024 mg/l (P. aeruginosa). A new resistance to tetracycline, gentamicin, meropeneme or triclosan was found in some adapted isolates. In E. coli horizontal gene transfer was induced (sulfonamide resistance by conjugation), pointing out an additional risk of sublethal CHG. The use of CHG in patient care - but also all other settings such as consumer products and households - should therefore be critically assessed and restricted to indications with a proven health benefit or justifiable public health benefits. Additional CHG has no health benefit when used in alcohol-based hand rubs and is not recommended by the WHO. For routine hand washing of soiled hands the use of plain soap is sufficient, CHG in soaps has no health benefit. In surgical hand antisepsis alcohol-based hand rubs should be preferred to CHG soaps. Implementation of these principles will help to reduce avoidable selection pressure.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Günter Kampf
- Institute for Hygiene and Environmental Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Ferdinand-Sauerbruch-Straβe, 17475 Greifswald, Germany
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Boucher C, Henton MM, Becker PJ, Kirberger RM, Hartman MJ. Comparative efficacy of three antiseptics as surgical skin preparations in dogs. Vet Surg 2018; 47:792-801. [PMID: 30004127 DOI: 10.1111/vsu.12913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To compare the antimicrobial efficacy of a 2% chlorhexidine gluconate and 70% ethanol solution (CG+A) with that of F10 Skin Prep Solution (F10) and electrochemically activated water (EAW) when used as a surgical preparation in canine patients. STUDY DESIGN Prospective randomized clinical study. SAMPLE POPULATION One hundred sixteen dogs presented for ovariohysterectomy. METHODS Dogs were randomly divided into 1 of the 3 antiseptic groups (CG+A, F10, EAW). Skin samples with replicating organism detection and counting plates were taken at 4 different perioperative sites and time intervals (postskin preparation, postskin antisepsis, 2 hours after the second sample, and at the end of surgery) during ovariohysterectomies performed by students. The colony forming unit (CFU) counts from each sample were quantified according to the level of bacterial contamination. Zero CFU was defined as no contamination, 1-12 CFU was defined as low contamination, and greater than 12 CFU was defined as high contamination. The 3 antiseptics were compared with respect to the level of contamination. RESULTS There was no difference in the level of colonization between the antiseptics at the first sampling time (P = .454). However, the level of contamination for CG+A was lower compared with F10 and EAW at the second, third, and fourth sampling times (P = .001, P = .01, P = .02, respectively). CONCLUSION CG+A was more effective at achieving a zero CFU count and low levels of contamination compared with F10 and EAW for surgical preparation in dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy. CLINICAL SIGNIFICANCE This study does not provide evidence to support the use of F10 and EAW instead of CG+A for the surgical skin preparation of dogs undergoing ovariohysterectomy.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Charles Boucher
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | - Piet J Becker
- Research Office, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Robert M Kirberger
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | - Marthinus J Hartman
- Department of Companion Animal Clinical Studies, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Kampf G. Aqueous chlorhexidine for surgical hand disinfection? J Hosp Infect 2018; 98:378-379. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2017.11.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 11/17/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
|
10
|
Differential Effects of Chlorhexidine Skin Cleansing Methods on Residual Chlorhexidine Skin Concentrations and Bacterial Recovery. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2018; 39:405-411. [PMID: 29493475 DOI: 10.1017/ice.2017.312] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Bathing intensive care unit (ICU) patients with 2% chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG)-impregnated cloths decreases the risk of healthcare-associated bacteremia and multidrug-resistant organism transmission. Hospitals employ different methods of CHG bathing, and few studies have evaluated whether those methods yield comparable results. OBJECTIVE To determine whether 3 different CHG skin cleansing methods yield similar residual CHG concentrations and bacterial densities on skin. DESIGN Prospective, randomized 2-center study with blinded assessment. PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING Healthcare personnel in surgical ICUs at 2 tertiary-care teaching hospitals in Chicago, Illinois, and Boston, Massachusetts, from July 2015 to January 2016. INTERVENTION Cleansing skin of one forearm with no-rinse 2% CHG-impregnated polyester cloth (method A) versus 4% CHG liquid cleansing with rinsing on the contralateral arm, applied with either non-antiseptic-impregnated cellulose/polyester cloth (method B) or cotton washcloth dampened with sterile water (method C). RESULTS In total, 63 participants (126 forearms) received method A on 1 forearm (n=63). On the contralateral forearm, 33 participants received method B and 30 participants received method C. Immediately and 6 hours after cleansing, method A yielded the highest residual CHG concentrations (2500 µg/mL and 1250 µg/mL, respectively) and lowest bacterial densities compared to methods B or C (P<.001). CONCLUSION In healthy volunteers, cleansing with 2% CHG-impregnated cloths yielded higher residual CHG concentrations and lower bacterial densities than cleansing with 4% CHG liquid applied with either of 2 different cloth types and followed by rinsing. The relevance of these differences to clinical outcomes remains to be determined. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2018;39:405-411.
Collapse
|
11
|
Hennig TJ, Werner S, Naujox K, Arndt A. Chlorhexidine is not an essential component in alcohol-based surgical hand preparation: a comparative study of two handrubs based on a modified EN 12791 test protocol. Antimicrob Resist Infect Control 2017; 6:96. [PMID: 28924473 PMCID: PMC5598061 DOI: 10.1186/s13756-017-0258-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2017] [Accepted: 09/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Surgical hand preparation is an essential part of modern surgery. Both alcohol-based and antiseptic detergent-based hand preparation are recommended practices, with a trend towards use of alcohol based handrubs. However, discussion has arisen whether chlorhexidine is a required ingredient in highly efficacious alcohol-based formulations, in view of providing sustained antimicrobial efficacy. METHODS One alcohol-only formulation (product A), containing ethanol and n-propanol, and one formulation containing a chlorhexidine-ethanol combination (product B) were directly compared with each other using a modified test protocol based on European standard EN 12791 (2016) with 25 volunteers. The alcohol-only formulation (product A) was applied for only 90 s, the chlorhexidine-alcohol formulation (product B) for 180 s. Microbial log reduction factors were determined and statistically compared immediately after application and at 6 h under surgical gloves. RESULTS The alcohol-only formulation (product A) achieved mean log reduction factors of 1.96 ± 1.06 immediately after application and 1.67 ± 0.71 after 6 h. The chlorhexidine-alcohol combination (product B) achieved mean log reduction factors of 1.42 ± 0.79 and 1.24 ± 0.90 immediately and after 6 h, respectively. The values for product A were significantly greater than those for product B at both measured time points (p ≤ 0.025 immediately after application and p ≤ 0.01 after 6 h). CONCLUSIONS An optimized alcohol-only formulation tested according to a modified EN 12791 protocol in 25 healthy volunteers outperformed a chlorhexidine-alcohol formulation both immediately after application and at 6 h under surgical gloves, despite a much shorter application time. Thus, optimized alcohol-only formulations do not require chlorhexidine to achieve potent immediate and sustained efficacy. In conclusion, chlorhexidine is not an essential component for alcohol-based surgical hand preparation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Thomas-Jörg Hennig
- B. Braun Medical AG, Centre of Excellence Infection Control, Seesatz 17, 6204 Sempach, Switzerland
| | - Sebastian Werner
- HygCen Germany GmbH, Bornhövedstrasse 78, 19055 Schwerin, Germany
| | - Kathrin Naujox
- HygCen Germany GmbH, Bornhövedstrasse 78, 19055 Schwerin, Germany
| | - Andreas Arndt
- B. Braun Medical AG, Centre of Excellence Infection Control, Seesatz 17, 6204 Sempach, Switzerland
| |
Collapse
|
12
|
Haydari M, Bardakci AG, Koldsland OC, Aass AM, Sandvik L, Preus HR. Comparing the effect of 0.06% -, 0.12% and 0.2% Chlorhexidine on plaque, bleeding and side effects in an experimental gingivitis model: a parallel group, double masked randomized clinical trial. BMC Oral Health 2017; 17:118. [PMID: 28821290 PMCID: PMC5562977 DOI: 10.1186/s12903-017-0400-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2016] [Accepted: 07/04/2017] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chlorhexidine is the gold standard of dental plaque prevention. The aim of the present study was to compare the plaque and gingivitis inhibiting effect of commercial products containing 0.2%, 0.12% and 0.06% chlorhexidine in a modified experimental gingivitis model. METHODS In three groups of healthy volunteers, experimental gingivitis was induced and monitored over 21 days and simultaneously treated with the commercial solutions containing 0.2%, 0.12% and 0.06% chlorhexidine. The maxillary right quadrant of each individual received mouthwash only, whereas the maxillary left quadrant was subject to both rinsing and mechanical oral hygiene. Compliance and side effects were monitored at days 7, 14, and 21. Plaque and gingivitis scores were obtained at baseline and day 21. RESULTS The commercial mouthwash containing 0.2% chlorhexidine resulted in statistically significantly lower plaque scores than the 0.12 and 0.06% mouthwashes after 21 days use, whereas no statistically significant difference was found between the effects of the two latter. CONCLUSION A commercially available mouthwash containing 0.2% chlorhexidine had statistically significant better effect in preventing dental plaque than the 0.12% and 0.06% solutions. TRIAL REGISTRATION ClinicalTrials.gov NCT02911766 . Registration date: September 9th 2016.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Maliha Haydari
- Department of Periodontology, Institute of Clinical Odontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Ayse Gul Bardakci
- Department of Periodontology, Institute of Clinical Odontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Odd Carsten Koldsland
- Department of Periodontology, Institute of Clinical Odontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Anne Merete Aass
- Department of Periodontology, Institute of Clinical Odontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Leiv Sandvik
- Department of Periodontology, Institute of Clinical Odontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway
| | - Hans R Preus
- Department of Periodontology, Institute of Clinical Odontology, Faculty of Dentistry, University of Oslo, Oslo, Norway.
| |
Collapse
|
13
|
Edwards RA, Riley CB, Howe L, Burrows EA, Riley KT, Frellstedt L. Comparison of an alcohol-based hand sanitation product with a traditional chlorhexidine hand scrub technique for hand hygiene preparation in an equine hospital. N Z Vet J 2017; 65:242-247. [PMID: 28614973 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2017.1342175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To investigate the efficacy of an alcohol gel-based hand antisepsis protocol compared with a traditional chlorhexidine-based protocol under conditions of routine clinical contamination, and following heavy faecal contamination. METHODS Twelve adult participants were recruited and on four separate days completed a hand sanitation protocol using a chlorhexidine scrub or an alcohol-based gel, with hands that were grossly clean but contaminated or with faecal contamination. Bacterial samples were obtained from participants' hands before sanitation, immediately after and then 2 hours later. All samples were cultured on blood and MacConkey agar and bacterial colonies counted after 48 hours. RESULTS for clean contaminated hands, the percentage reduction in bacterial colonies on blood agar immediately after hand sanitation was similar for both protocols (p=0.3), but was greater for the alcohol gel than chlorhexidine after 2 hours (p=0.005). For hands with faecal contamination, the percentage reduction in bacterial colonies on blood agar was similar for both protocols immediately and 2 hours after sanitation (p>0.2), but positive cultures were obtained on blood agar from samples collected after both protocols, for almost all participants. CONCLUSIONS The results indicate equivalent efficacy of the alcohol-based gel and the pre-surgical chlorhexidine protocol. CLINICAL RELEVANCE The alcohol-based gel protocol is an effective hand asepsis technique for grossly clean contaminated hands and those following faecal contamination, with comparable efficacy to chlorhexidine based scrub.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R A Edwards
- a Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University , Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442 , New Zealand.,b Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine , Utrecht University , Utrecht , The Netherlands
| | - C B Riley
- a Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University , Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442 , New Zealand
| | - L Howe
- a Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University , Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442 , New Zealand
| | - E A Burrows
- a Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University , Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442 , New Zealand
| | - K T Riley
- a Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University , Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442 , New Zealand
| | - L Frellstedt
- a Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University , Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North 4442 , New Zealand
| |
Collapse
|
14
|
Kampf G. Acquired resistance to chlorhexidine – is it time to establish an ‘antiseptic stewardship’ initiative? J Hosp Infect 2016; 94:213-227. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2016.08.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2016] [Accepted: 08/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
|
15
|
Verwilghen D, Kampf G, Doyle AJ. Antibacterial Efficacy of Several Surgical Hand Preparation Products Used by Veterinary Students. Vet Surg 2016; 45:1118-1119. [DOI: 10.1111/vsu.12566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2016] [Accepted: 09/02/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Denis Verwilghen
- Associate Professor in Large Animal Surgery, Department of Large Animal Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Günter Kampf
- Professor for hygiene and environmental medicine; Knieler und Team GmbH, Infection Control Science; Hamburg Germany
- Ernst-Moritz-Arndt University, Institute for Hygiene and Environmental Medicine; Greifswald Germany
| | - Aimie J. Doyle
- Department of Health Management; Atlantic Veterinary Medicine; Charlottetown, Prince Edward Island, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
16
|
Uri M, Buckley LM, Marriage L, McEwan N, Schmidt VM. A pilot study comparingin vitroefficacy of topical preparations against veterinary pathogens. Vet Dermatol 2016; 27:152-e39. [DOI: 10.1111/vde.12306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 02/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Maarja Uri
- Small Animal Veterinary Teaching Hospital; University of Liverpool; Leahurst Chester High Road Neston CH64 7TE UK
| | - Laura M. Buckley
- Small Animal Veterinary Teaching Hospital; University of Liverpool; Leahurst Chester High Road Neston CH64 7TE UK
| | - Louise Marriage
- Small Animal Veterinary Teaching Hospital; University of Liverpool; Leahurst Chester High Road Neston CH64 7TE UK
| | - Neil McEwan
- Small Animal Veterinary Teaching Hospital; University of Liverpool; Leahurst Chester High Road Neston CH64 7TE UK
| | - Vanessa M. Schmidt
- Small Animal Veterinary Teaching Hospital; University of Liverpool; Leahurst Chester High Road Neston CH64 7TE UK
| |
Collapse
|
17
|
Kampf G. Effect of Chlorhexidine Probably Overestimated Because of Lack of Neutralization after Sampling. Infect Control Hosp Epidemiol 2015; 30:811-2; author reply 812-3. [DOI: 10.1086/597522] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
|
18
|
So BKL, Chu CCY, Ho PL, Chow KH, Leung JNS, Lee IYM, Lin CK, Lee CK. Evaluation of two chlorhexidine - alcohol-based skin disinfectants in blood donation setting. Vox Sang 2013; 106:316-21. [DOI: 10.1111/vox.12107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- B. K. L. So
- Hong Kong Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service; Hong Kong SAR China
| | - C. C. Y. Chu
- Hong Kong Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service; Hong Kong SAR China
| | - P. L. Ho
- Carol Yu Center for Infection and Department of Microbiology; the University of Hong Kong; Hong Kong SAR China
| | - K. H. Chow
- Carol Yu Center for Infection and Department of Microbiology; the University of Hong Kong; Hong Kong SAR China
| | - J. N. S. Leung
- Hong Kong Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service; Hong Kong SAR China
| | - I. Y. M. Lee
- Hong Kong Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service; Hong Kong SAR China
| | - C. K. Lin
- Hong Kong Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service; Hong Kong SAR China
| | - C. K. Lee
- Hong Kong Red Cross Blood Transfusion Service; Hong Kong SAR China
| |
Collapse
|
19
|
Macias JH, Arreguin V, Munoz JM, Alvarez JA, Mosqueda JL, Macias AE. Chlorhexidine is a better antiseptic than povidone iodine and sodium hypochlorite because of its substantive effect. Am J Infect Control 2013; 41:634-7. [PMID: 23380379 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2012.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2012] [Revised: 10/02/2012] [Accepted: 10/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The present study compared both the antiseptic efficacy of sodium hypochlorite against that of chlorhexidine gluconate in isopropyl alcohol and the substantive effect of chlorhexidine, povidone iodine, and sodium hypochlorite. METHODS This was a 2-step study that included volunteers. In step 1, 4 skin areas were tested for bacteria in colony-forming units (CFU): 2 were controls to determine baseline bacteria or the effect of scrubbing, and 2 were treated with 10% hypochlorite or 2% chlorhexidine in isopropyl alcohol. Every subject was tested 4 times. The second step tested the substantive effect of 10% povidone-iodine and the aforementioned antiseptics. RESULTS For the first step, 30 volunteers were studied, resulting in 120 determinations for each control and antiseptic. No differences between chlorhexidine gluconate (median 115 CFU/cm(2)) and sodium hypochlorite (median 115 CFU/cm(2)) were found. Both antiseptics were significantly different from rubbing control (317 CFU/cm(2)) and basal control (606 CFU/cm(2)). Only chlorhexidine showed a substantive effect. CONCLUSION We consider that chlorhexidine gluconate in isopropyl alcohol, sodium hypochlorite, and povidone-iodine is equally effective for procedures that do not require a long action. However, chlorhexidine is desirable for procedures such as catheter insertion, skin preparation for surgery, or handwashing prior to surgery.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Juan H Macias
- University of Guanajuato, Leon Guanajuato, Mexico City, Mexico.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Kampf G, Reichel M, Hollingsworth A, Bashir M. Efficacy of surgical hand scrub products based on chlorhexidine is largely overestimated without neutralizing agents in the sampling fluid. Am J Infect Control 2013; 41:e1-5. [PMID: 23287283 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2012.07.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2012] [Revised: 07/18/2012] [Accepted: 07/19/2012] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Surgical hand antiseptics often contain chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG). There are doubts that the full effect measured for these products might only be achieved after sampling because of a lack of valid neutralizing agents (NAs) in the sampling fluid. METHODS We measured the efficacy of Avagard CHG and Hibiclens for 11 applications over 5 days according to the manufacturers' instructions. NAs were added to the sampling fluid and the dilution fluid (group 1) or to only the dilution fluid (group 2). In a third group, NAs were added to the dilution fluid only, and cream was applied after the final scrub on days 1 to 4. Neutralization was validated according to American Society for Testing and Materials International standard 1054 using Staphylococcus epidermidis. RESULTS When NAs were not added to the sampling fluid, both products were very effective, with a mean log(10) reduction in flora of 3.32 ± 0.53 for Avagard and 3.68 ± 0.52 for Hibiclens on day 5. When NAs were included in the sampling fluid, however, the immediate efficacy was significantly lower, at 2.75 ± 0.55 and 3.14 ± 0.50, respectively. A lack of NAs in the sampling fluid resulted in overestimation of efficacy by a factor of between 0.3 and 1.1 log(10). CONCLUSION Efficacy studies carried out without NAs in the sampling fluid for products with CHG should be critically assessed.
Collapse
|
21
|
Kampf G. "Persistent activity"-should the effect of chlorhexidine in the sampling fluid and nutrient broth and on agar plates really be regarded as the effect on hands? Am J Infect Control 2012; 40:579. [PMID: 22854384 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2012.04.317] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2012] [Accepted: 04/16/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
|
22
|
Verwilghen D, Grulke S, Kampf G. Presurgical hand antisepsis: concepts and current habits of veterinary surgeons. Vet Surg 2012; 40:515-21. [PMID: 21736594 DOI: 10.1111/j.1532-950x.2011.00846.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To assess current habits for surgical hand preparation among veterinary surgical specialists and to compare data with current guidelines for hand asepsis techniques. STUDY DESIGN Survey of veterinary surgical specialists. SAMPLE POPULATION Diplomates of the American (ACVS) and European Colleges of Veterinary Surgeons (ECVS). METHODS An internet-based survey of hand preparation methods before surgical procedures was conducted of 1300 listed ACVS and ECVS Diplomates. RESULTS A 42.6% response rate was obtained. Approximately, 80% of respondents use disinfecting soaps as a primary method for hand antisepsis. Of those, 81% use chlorhexidine-based scrubs and 7% use a neutral soap followed by a hydroalcoholic solution. CONCLUSIONS Contrary to current recommendations of the World Health Organization and scientific evidence supporting use of hydro-alcoholic rubs for presurgical hand preparation, veterinary surgical specialists still use surgical scrub solutions containing disinfecting soaps.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Denis Verwilghen
- Department of Clinical Sciences of Companion Animals and Equids, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine of Liege, Liege, Belgium.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Stewardson A, Allegranzi B, Sax H, Kilpatrick C, Pittet D. Back to the future: rising to the Semmelweis challenge in hand hygiene. Future Microbiol 2011; 6:855-76. [PMID: 21861619 DOI: 10.2217/fmb.11.66] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Hand hygiene is the single most important intervention for reducing healthcare associated infections and preventing the spread of antimicrobial resistance. This sentence begins most publications regarding hand hygiene in the medical literature. But why - as we mark 150 years since the publication of Ignaz Semmelweis' landmark monograph on the subject - do we continue to repeat it? One might be tempted to regard it as a truism. However, while tremendous progress has certainly been made in this field, a significant amount of work is yet to be done in both strengthening the evidence regarding the impact of hand hygiene and maximizing its implementation. Hand hygiene cannot yet be taken for granted. This article summarizes historical perspectives, dynamics of microbial colonization and efficacy of hand cleansing methods and agents, elements and impacts of successful hand hygiene promotion, as well as scale-up and sustainability. We also explore hand hygiene myths and current challenges such as monitoring, behavior change, patient participation and research priorities.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Andrew Stewardson
- Infection Control Program & World Health Organization Collaborating Centre on Patient Safety (Infection Control & Practice Improvement), University of Geneva Hospitals, Switzerland
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Verwilghen DR, Mainil J, Mastrocicco E, Hamaide A, Detilleux J, van Galen G, Serteyn D, Grulke S. Surgical hand antisepsis in veterinary practice: Evaluation of soap scrubs and alcohol based rub techniques. Vet J 2011; 190:372-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2010.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2010] [Revised: 12/12/2010] [Accepted: 12/19/2010] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
|
25
|
Kampf G, Ostermeyer C. "Persistent activity" of chlorhexidine or alcohol-based hand rubs-what is really necessary to prevent nosocomial infections? Am J Infect Control 2011; 39:255-6; author reply 256-8. [PMID: 21458687 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2009.11.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2009] [Revised: 11/23/2009] [Accepted: 11/30/2009] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
|
26
|
|
27
|
Kampf G. Are the conclusions on a copper-based biocidal handrub scientifically justified? Am J Infect Control 2009; 37:691-2; author reply 692. [PMID: 19782250 DOI: 10.1016/j.ajic.2009.04.278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2009] [Accepted: 04/10/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
|
28
|
Rotter M, Sattar S, Dharan S, Allegranzi B, Mathai E, Pittet D. Methods to evaluate the microbicidal activities of hand-rub and hand-wash agents. J Hosp Infect 2009; 73:191-9. [PMID: 19729223 DOI: 10.1016/j.jhin.2009.06.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2009] [Accepted: 06/16/2009] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
In vitro carrier tests, suspension tests, time-kill curves, and determinations of minimum inhibitory concentrations to evaluate the microbicidal activities of hand antiseptics provide only a preliminary indication of the antimicrobial spectrum and speed of action of a given formulation. Ex vivo testing with human or animal skin at human skin temperature and at contact times reflecting field conditions may give a better indication of a formulation's ability to tackle hand-transmitted pathogens. Field testing of hands for levels of skin microbiota before and after antisepsis may be easier to perform, but it is subject to many uncontrollable factors. Whereas randomised clinical trials may be the ultimate approach to assess the effectiveness of hand hygiene protocols and products in preventing microbial cross-transmission and, ultimately, infections, they can be prohibitively expensive, time-consuming, difficult to design, and therefore impractical. Hence, the primary emphasis should be on in vivo testing on human hands, using a well-designed protocol that closely simulates the recommended field use of the formulation, and possibly followed by clinical studies. The use of these method is the most likely to yield useful data on the potential of a formulation to interrupt the spread of pathogens transmitted by hands in healthcare settings. This review provides a critical assessment of the methods currently used to meet regulatory requirements for hand antiseptics in Europe and North America.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Rotter
- Institute of Hygiene and Medical Microbiology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Reichel M, Heisig P, Kampf G. Pitfalls in efficacy testing--how important is the validation of neutralization of chlorhexidine digluconate? Ann Clin Microbiol Antimicrob 2008; 7:20. [PMID: 19046465 PMCID: PMC2613926 DOI: 10.1186/1476-0711-7-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/28/2008] [Accepted: 12/02/2008] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Effective neutralization of active agents is essential to obtain valid efficacy results, especially when non-volatile active agents like chlorhexidine digluconate (CHG) are tested. The aim of this study was to determine an effective and non-toxic neutralizing mixture for a propan-1-ol solution containing 2% CHG. Methods Experiments were carried out according to ASTM E 1054-02. The neutralization capacity was tested separately with five challenge microorganisms in suspension, and with a rayon swab carrier. Either 0.5 mL of the antiseptic solution (suspension test) or a saturated swab with the antiseptic solution (carrier test) was added to tryptic soy broth containing neutralizing agents. After the samples were mixed, aliquots were spread immediately and after 3 h of storage at 2 – 8°C onto tryptic soy agar containing a neutralizing mixture. Results The neutralizer was, however, not consistently effective in the suspension test. Immediate spread yielded a valid neutralization with Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis and Corynebacterium jeikeium but not with Micrococcus luteus (p < 0.001) and Candida albicans (p < 0.001). A 3-h storage period of the neutralized active agents in suspension resulted in significant carry-over activity of CHG in addition against Staphylococcus epidermidis (p < 0.001) and Corynebacterium jeikeium (p = 0.044). In the carrier test, the neutralizing mixture was found to be effective and non toxic to all challenge microorganisms when spread immediately. However, after 3 h storage of the neutralized active agents significant carry-over activity of CHG against Micrococcus luteus (p = 0.004; Tukey HSD) was observed. Conclusion Without effective neutralization in the sampling fluid, non-volatile active ingredients will continue to reduce the number of surviving microorganisms after antiseptic treatment even if the sampling fluid is kept cold straight after testing. This can result in false-positive antiseptic efficacy data. Attention should be paid during the neutralization validation process to the amount of antiseptic solution, the storage time and to the choice of appropriate and sensitive microorganisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mirja Reichel
- Bode Chemie GmbH & Co, KG, Scientific Affairs, Melanchthonstr, 27, 22525, Hamburg, Germany.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|