Renal rehabilitation: obstacles, progress, and prospects for the future

An Evidence-Based Theory About PRO Use in Kidney Care: A Realist Synthesis

BACKGROUND

There is international interest on the use of patient-reported outcomes (PROs) in nephrology.

OBJECTIVES

Our objectives were to develop a kidney-specific program theory about use of PROs in nephrology that may enhance person-centered care, both at individual and aggregated levels of care, and to test and refine this theory through a systematic review of the empirical literature. Together, these objectives articulate what works or does not work, for whom, and why.

METHODS

Realist synthesis methodology guided the electronic database and gray literature searches (in January 2017 and October 2018), screening, and extraction conducted independently by three reviewers. Sources included all nephrology patients and/or practitioners. Through a process of extraction and synthesis, each included source was examined to assess how contexts may trigger mechanisms to influence specific outcomes.

RESULTS

After screening 19,961 references, 84 theoretical and 34 empirical sources were used. PROs are proposed to be useful for providing nephrology care through three types of use. The first type is use of individual-level PRO data at point of care, receiving the majority of theoretical and empirical explorations. Clinician use to support person-centered care, and patient use to support patient engagement, are purported to improve satisfaction, health, and quality of life. Contextual factors specific to the kidney care setting that may influence the use of PRO data include the complexity of kidney disease symptom burden, symptoms that may be stigmatized, comorbidities, and time or administrative constraints in dialysis settings. Electronic collection of PROs may facilitate PRO use given these contexts. The second type is use of aggregated PRO data at point of care, including public reporting of PROs to inform decisions at point of care and improve quality of care, and use of PROs for treatment decisions. The third type is use of aggregated PRO data by organizations, including publicly available PRO data to compare centers. In single-payer systems, regular collection of PROs by dialysis centers can be achieved through economic incentives. Both the second and third types of PRO use include pressures that may trigger quality improvement processes.

CONCLUSION

The current state of the evidence is primarily theoretical. There is pressing need for empirical research to improve the evidence-base of PRO use at individual and aggregated levels of nephrology care.

Rehabilitating a Dialysis Patient

End-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients undergoing dialysis face much stress and have to make adjustments in their lives. To optimize health and improve quality of life, rehabilitation of renal patients is a necessity. Renal rehabilitation includes physical, social, psychological, and vocational elements. We established a renal rehabilitation program—including predialysis education, in-center training, and community rehabilitation—in our regional dialysis unit. The program is organized by a multidisciplinary team of health professionals with the help of a renal-patient support group. A patient who joined the rehabilitation program showed significant lifestyle change.

[Exercise as a protective cardiovascular and metabolic factor in end stage renal disease patients]

OBJECTIVE

The aim of the study was to test the effectiveness of Physical Activity (PA) during haemodialysis as a protective treatment against cardiovascular (CV) diseases.

METHODS

Eighty volunteer patients were included in this multicentric prospective study and followed for two years: 40 patients in the Exercise group (EX), 40 patients in the Control group (Ctrl). CV risk factors: Total Cholesterol, HDL Cholesterol (HDL-c), LDL cholesterol (LDL-c), Triglycerides (TG) and Hemoglobin (Hb), and Prealbumin, Albumin, Parathormon, 25-OH Vitamin D, were checked at Month 0 (M0) and Month 24 (M24). The number of antihypertensive treatments and the Erythropoietin Stimulating Agent (ESA) required doses were collected. We noted for each group during the follow-up the number of hospitalizations for CV reasons. After two years, we compared 31 patients in EX and 35 in Ctrl.

RESULTS

We observed a significant decrease of total cholesterol EX group: 1.86±0.49g/L at M0 versus 1.64±0.38g/L at M24 (P<0.05). HDLc and but LDL-c remained stable in both groups. TG decreased significantly in EX: 1.76±0.89g/L vs 1.44±0.69g/L (P<0.05). The number of antihypertensive drugs per patient decreased significantly (P<0.05) in the EX group between M0 and M24 (1.61±1.28 at M0 and 0.74±0.85 at M24). The EX patients were three times less frequently hospitalized for cardiovascular reasons. There were five hospital stays versus 14 for the Ctrl group.

CONCLUSION

Our study demonstrates that an intradialytic aerobic cycling training program promotes beneficial effects on cardiovascular protection. Physical activity reduced the number of CV events in our population during two years follow-up.

Beneficial effects of an intradialytic cycling training program in patients with end-stage kidney disease

In chronic kidney disease (CKD), oxidative stress (OS) plays a central role in the development of cardiovascular diseases. This pilot program aimed to determine whether an intradialytic aerobic cycling training protocol, by increasing physical fitness, could reduce OS and improve other CKD-related disorders such as altered body composition and lipid profile. Eighteen hemodialysis patients were randomly assigned to either an intradialytic training (cycling: 30 min, 55%–60% peak power, 3 days/week) group (EX; n = 8) or a control group (CON; n = 10) for 3 months. Body composition (from dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry), physical fitness (peak oxygen uptake and the 6-minute walk test (6MWT)), lipid profile (triglycerides (TG), total cholesterol, high-density lipoprotein, and low-density lipoprotein (LDL)), and pro/antioxidant status (15-F2α-isoprostanes (F2-IsoP) and oxidized LDL in plasma; superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, and reduced/oxidized glutathione in erythrocytes) were determined at baseline and 3 months later. The intradialytic training protocol did not modify body composition but had significant effects on physical fitness, lipid profile, and pro/antioxidant status. Indeed, at 3 months: (i) performance on the 6MWT was increased in EX (+23.4%, p < 0.001) but did not change in CON, (ii) plasma TG were reduced in EX (–23%, p < 0.03) but were not modified in CON, and (iii) plasma F2-IsoP concentrations were lower in EX than in CON (–35.7%, p = 0.02). In conclusion, our results show that 30 min of intradialytic training, 3 times per week for 3 months, are enough to exert beneficial effects on the most sensitive and reliable marker of lipid peroxidation (IsoP) while improving CKD-associated disorders (lipid profile and physical fitness). Intradialytic aerobic cycling training represents a useful and easy strategy to reduce CKD-associated disorders. These results need to be confirmed with a larger randomized study.

Health policy, disparities, and the kidney

Kidney care and public policy have been linked for 40 years, with various consequences to outcomes. The 1972 Social Security Amendment, Section 2991, expanded Medicare coverage for all modalities of dialysis and transplant services and non-kidney-related care to those with end-stage renal disease (ESRD) regardless of age. This first and only disease-specific entitlement program was a step toward decreasing disparities in access to care. Despite this, disparities in kidney disease outcomes continue as they are based on many factors. Over the last 4 decades, policies have been enacted to understand and improve the delivery of ESRD care. More recent policies include novel shared-risk payment models to ensure quality and decrease costs. This article discusses the impact or potential impact of selected policies on health disparities in advanced chronic kidney disease and ESRD. Although it is too early to know the consequences of newer policies (Affordable Care Act, ESRD Prospective Payment System, Quality Incentive Program, Accountable Care Organizations), their goal of improving access to timely patient-centered appropriate affordable and quality care should lessen the disparity gap. The Nephrology community must leverage this dynamic state of care-delivery model redesign to decrease kidney-related health disparities.

Exercise training for adults with chronic kidney disease

BACKGROUND

Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a worldwide public health problem. In the National Kidney Foundation Disease Outcomes Quality Initiative guidelines it is stressed that lifestyle issues such as physical activity should be seen as cornerstones of the therapy. The physical fitness in adults with CKD is so reduced that it impinges on ability and capacity to perform activities in everyday life and occupational tasks. An increasing number of studies have been published regarding health effects of various regular exercise programmes in adults with CKD and in renal transplant patients.

OBJECTIVES

We aimed to: 1) assess the effects of regular exercise in adults with CKD and kidney transplant patients; and 2) determine how the exercise programme should be designed (e.g. type, duration, intensity, frequency of exercise) to be able to affect physical fitness and functioning, level of physical activity, cardiovascular dimensions, nutrition, lipids, glucose metabolism, systemic inflammation, muscle morphology and morphometrics, dropout rates, compliance, adverse events and mortality.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched the Cochrane Renal Group's specialised register, CENTRAL, MEDLINE, EMBASE, CINAHL, Web of Science, Biosis, Pedro, Amed, AgeLine, PsycINFO and KoreaMed. We also handsearched reference lists of review articles and included studies, conference proceeding's abstracts. There were no language restrictions.Date of last search: May 2010.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We included any randomised controlled trial (RCT) enrolling adults with CKD or kidney transplant recipients undergoing any type of physical exercise intervention undertaken for eight weeks or more. Studies using less than eight weeks exercise, those only recommending an increase in physical activity, and studies in which co-interventions are not applied or given to both groups were excluded.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Data extraction and assessment of study and data quality were performed independently by the two authors. Continuous outcome data are presented as standardised mean difference (SMD) or mean difference (MD) with 95% confidence intervals (CI).

MAIN RESULTS

Forty-five studies, randomising 1863 participants were included in this review. Thirty two studies presented data that could be meta-analysed. Types of exercise training included cardiovascular training, mixed cardiovascular and resistance training, resistance-only training and yoga. Some studies used supervised exercise interventions and others used unsupervised interventions. Exercise intensity was classed as 'high' or 'low', duration of individual exercise sessions ranged from 20 minutes/session to 110 minutes/session, and study duration was from two to 18 months. Seventeen per cent of studies were classed as having an overall low risk of bias, 33% as moderate, and 49% as having a high risk of bias.The results shows that regular exercise significantly improved: 1) physical fitness (aerobic capacity, 24 studies, 847 participants: SMD -0.56, 95% CI -0.70 to -0.42; walking capacity, 7 studies, 191 participants: SMD -0.36, 95% CI-0.65 to -0.06); 2) cardiovascular dimensions (resting diastolic blood pressure, 11 studies, 419 participants: MD 2.32 mm Hg, 95% CI 0.59 to 4.05; resting systolic blood pressure, 9 studies, 347 participants: MD 6.08 mm Hg, 95% CI 2.15 to 10.12; heart rate, 11 studies, 229 participants: MD 6 bpm, 95% CI 10 to 2); 3) some nutritional parameters (albumin, 3 studies, 111 participants: MD -2.28 g/L, 95% CI -4.25 to -0.32; pre-albumin, 3 studies, 111 participants: MD - 44.02 mg/L, 95% CI -71.52 to -16.53; energy intake, 4 studies, 97 participants: SMD -0.47, 95% CI -0.88 to -0.05); and 4) health-related quality of life. Results also showed how exercise should be designed in order to optimise the effect. Other outcomes had insufficient evidence.

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

There is evidence for significant beneficial effects of regular exercise on physical fitness, walking capacity, cardiovascular dimensions (e.g. blood pressure and heart rate), health-related quality of life and some nutritional parameters in adults with CKD. Other outcomes had insufficient evidence due to the lack of data from RCTs. The design of the exercise intervention causes difference in effect size and should be considered when prescribing exercise with the aim of affecting a certain outcome. Future RCTs should focus more on the effects of resistance training interventions or mixed cardiovascular- and resistance training as these exercise types have not been studied as much as cardiovascular exercise.

Sustaining a hemodialysis exercise program: a review

This article reviews the literature addressing exercise programs for dialysis patients to identify elements necessary for sustaining exercise programs in this population. Literature searches for publications (January 1980-February 2009) in Medline (OVID), PubMed, CINAHL (EBSCO), EBSCOhost EJS, ProQuest Central, Web of Science, Cochrane Library, Google Scholar, ScienceDirect, SpringerLink (Kluwer), and Wiley Interscience (Blackwell) were performed. Reference lists from relevant articles were hand-searched for further publications. Criteria for inclusion included full-text primary research and review articles focused on exercise for adult hemodialysis patients. One hundred and seventy one publications were found with a primary focus on exercise in hemodialysis. Of these, 28 primary research and 14 review articles addressed one or more aspects of sustainability of hemodialysis exercise programs. Factors contributing to sustainable exercise programs included: dedicated exercise professionals; encouragement to exercise intradialytically; dialysis and medical staff commitment; adequate physical requirements of equipment and space; interesting and stimulating; cost implications need to be addressed; exercise is not for everyone; requires individual prescription; and there is no age barrier to exercise on hemodialysis.

Self-efficacy and self-management behaviors in patients with chronic kidney disease

Although past research has examined self-management among patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), little is known about self-management in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). In this cross-sectional survey (no intervention), 174 patients with CKD (serum creatinine > or =1.7 mg/dL) completed self-reported measures of self-efficacy, physical and mental functioning, and self-management. The purpose of the study was to explore the association between patients' perceived self-efficacy and their self-management behaviors. Five types of self-management behaviors were measured: communication with caregivers, partnership in care, self-care, self-advocacy, and medication adherence. Controlling for other relevant variables including age, education, diabetic status, hypertension, serum creatinine, physical functioning, and mental health functioning, higher perceived self-efficacy scores were associated with increased communication, partnership, self-care, and medication-adherence behaviors. In this study, patients' perceived self-efficacy was a more consistent correlate of self-management behavior than were demographic or health characteristics. Because self-management has been associated with positive patient outcomes, fostering self-management by supporting patient self-efficacy may have long-term benefits.

Efeitos do exercício físico durante a hemodiálise em indivíduos com insuficiência renal crônica: uma revisão

As principais alterações observadas em indivíduos com insuficiência renal crônica são anemia, hipertensão arterial sistêmica e atrofia muscular, que levam à baixa capacidade aeróbica e perda de força muscular. Assim, parte do tratamento desses indivíduos consiste em programas de exercício físico. O objetivo desta revisão da literatura foi documentar os efeitos agudos e as adaptações crônicas, cardiovasculares e musculares em indivíduos no estágio final da doença renal, submetidos a programas de exercício físico durante a hemodiálise. Foram selecionados artigos científicos nas bases eletrônicas Medline, Lilacs e PEDro, assim como no acervo de periódicos da biblioteca da Faculdade de Medicina da UFMG. Foram analisados 13 artigos envolvendo exercício físico aeróbico associado ou não a fortalecimento muscular durante a hemodiálise, variando quanto à intensidade, freqüência e duração da intervenção. A maioria demonstrou que exercícios físicos realizados durante a hemodiálise promovem efeitos benéficos na melhora da capacidade aeróbica, força muscular e no controle dos fatores de risco cardiovasculares, auxiliando a remoção dos solutos durante a hemodiálise. Embora o tema seja ainda pouco explorado, a literatura disponível evidencia benefícios do exercício durante a hemodiálise sobre a capacidade aeróbica e força muscular dos pacientes.

Renal rehabilitation and improved patient outcomes in Texas dialysis facilities

BACKGROUND

Because a cure is not a reasonable goal for patients with end-stage renal disease (ESRD), optimal physical and mental health functioning are primary objectives of care and major determinants of health-related quality of life, morbidity, and mortality. This cross-sectional study used facility-level survey data to test the hypothesis that dialysis unit rehabilitation activities are associated with higher patient functional status.

METHODS

Data were collected from 169 dialysis facilities in the ESRD Network of Texas (Network 14), including facility characteristics, facility-level patient demographic and clinical characteristics, and facility rehabilitation activities measured by the Life Options Unit Self-Assessment Tool (USAT). Facility-level data on patient functioning and well-being measured by the Medical Outcomes Study 36-Item Short-Form Health Survey were obtained from all 86 of the respondent facilities that collected it.

RESULTS

Most participating facilities reported performing rehabilitation activities in all five categories (encouragement, education, exercise, employment, and evaluation). The median number reported was 32 of a possible 100 activities. Exercise interventions were the least often implemented activities. Linear multiple regression showed that facility rehabilitation activity scores measured by the USAT were associated with higher facility mean Mental Component Scale (MCS) scores, controlling for facility characteristics (size, profit status), facility-level patient demographic characteristics (diabetes, race, sex, age), and facility-level patient laboratory variables: urea reduction ratio and hemoglobin and serum albumin levels.

CONCLUSION

Because MCS scores have been shown in other studies to be inversely related to morbidity and mortality, this finding suggests that the introduction of rehabilitation interventions into the dialysis care regimen may prove beneficial.

The Use of Patient-Based Instruments to Measure, Manage, and Improve Quality of Care in Dialysis Facilities

Continuous quality improvement requires analysis of data and the variation in those data to improve the process of care. Traditionally, physicians assign a higher value to quantitative data gathered from laboratory and physiologic testing than to data gathered from querying patients. There is a growing literature validating the use of patient-assessed health status as primary data in measuring and managing quality improvement. There are a range of patient-assessed data, from simple "complaints" to psychometrically validated health status instruments. Each has its own use. Each are increasingly available for use in the routine conduct of care. Patient-assessed health status predicts important outcomes of care such as death, hospitalization, depression, and physical capacity. Providers can use them to plan and monitor care. The ongoing challenge is to align the patients' expectations for issues related to process of care with issues associated with outcomes of care.