Beagle 2: a proposed exobiology lander for ESA's 2003 Mars Express mission

Identification of the Beagle 2 lander on Mars

The 2003 Beagle 2 Mars lander has been identified in Isidis Planitia at 90.43° E, 11.53° N, close to the predicted target of 90.50° E, 11.53° N. Beagle 2 was an exobiology lander designed to look for isotopic and compositional signs of life on Mars, as part of the European Space Agency Mars Express (MEX) mission. The 2004 recalculation of the original landing ellipse from a 3-sigma major axis from 174 km to 57 km, and the acquisition of Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter High Resolution Imaging Science Experiment (HiRISE) imagery at 30 cm per pixel across the target region, led to the initial identification of the lander in 2014. Following this, more HiRISE images, giving a total of 15, including red and blue-green colours, were obtained over the area of interest and searched, which allowed sub-pixel imaging using super high-resolution techniques. The size (approx. 1.5 m), distinctive multilobed shape, high reflectivity relative to the local terrain, specular reflections, and location close to the centre of the planned landing ellipse led to the identification of the Beagle 2 lander. The shape of the imaged lander, although to some extent masked by the specular reflections in the various images, is consistent with deployment of the lander lid and then some or all solar panels. Failure to fully deploy the panels-which may have been caused by damage during landing-would have prohibited communication between the lander and MEX and commencement of science operations. This implies that the main part of the entry, descent and landing sequence, the ejection from MEX, atmospheric entry and parachute deployment, and landing worked as planned with perhaps only the final full panel deployment failing.

In Situ Search for Extraterrestrial Life: A Microbial Fuel Cell-Based Sensor for the Detection of Photosynthetic Metabolism

Microbial fuel cells (MFCs) are bioelectrochemical systems (BES) capable of harvesting electrons from redox reactions involved in metabolism. In a previous work, we used chemoorganoheterotrophic microorganisms from the three domains of life-Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya-to demonstrate that these BES could be applied to the in situ detection of extraterrestrial life. Since metabolism can be considered a common signature of life "as we know it," we extended in this study the ability to use MFCs as sensors for photolithoautotrophic metabolisms. To achieve this goal, two different photosynthetic microorganisms were used: the microalgae Parachlorella kessleri and the cyanobacterium Nostoc sp. MFCs were loaded with nonsterilized samples, sterilized samples, or sterilized culture medium of both microorganisms. Electric potential measurements were recorded for each group in single experiments or in continuum during light-dark cycles, and power and current densities were calculated. Our results indicate that the highest power and current density values were achieved when metabolically active microorganisms were present in the anode of the MFC. Moreover, when continuous measurements were performed during light-dark cycles, it was possible to see a positive response to light. Therefore, these BES could be used not only to detect chemoorganoheterotrophic metabolisms but also photolithoautotrophic metabolisms, in particular those involving oxygenic photosynthesis. Additionally, the positive response to light when using these BES could be employed to distinguish photosynthetic from nonphotosynthetic microorganisms in a sample.

Locally targeted ecosynthesis: a proactive in situ search for extant life on other worlds

The Viking landers conducted the only life-detection mission outside Earth nearly 40 years ago. We believe it is time to resume this proactive search for life and propose a new approach based on Locally Targeted Ecosynthesis (LoTE) missions: the engineering of local habitable hotspots on planetary surfaces to reveal any subdued biosphere and enhance the expression of its biological activity. LoTE missions are based on a minimum set of assumptions about life, namely, the need for liquid solvents, energy sources, and nutrients, and the limits imposed by UV and ionizing radiation. The most promising destinations for LoTE missions are Mars and Saturn's moon Titan. We describe two LoTE mission concepts that would enhance the unique environmental conditions on Mars and Titan to reveal a subdued biosphere easily detectable with conventional instruments by supplying biologically essential yet critically limited compounds and by engineering local habitable conditions.

Laser-Induced Fluorescence Emission (L.I.F.E.): searching for Mars organics with a UV-enhanced PanCam

The European Space Agency will launch the ExoMars mission in 2016 with a primary goal of surveying the martian subsurface for evidence of organic material. We have recently investigated the utility of including either a 365 nm light-emitting diode or a 375 nm laser light source in the ExoMars rover panoramic camera (PanCam). Such a modification would make it feasible to monitor rover drill cuttings optically for the fluorescence signatures of aromatic organic molecules and map the distribution of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) as a function of depth to the 2 m limit of the ExoMars drill. The technique described requires no sample preparation, does not consume irreplaceable resources, and would allow mission control to prioritize deployment of organic detection experiments that require sample destruction, expenditure of non-replaceable consumables, or both. We report here for the first time laser-induced fluorescence emission (L.I.F.E.) imaging detection limits for anthracene, pyrene, and perylene targets doped onto a Mars analog granular peridotite with a 375 nm Nichia laser diode in optically uncorrected wide-angle mode. Data were collected via the Beagle 2 PanCam backup filter wheel fitted with original blue (440 nm), green (530 nm), and red (670 nm) filters. All three PAH species can be detected with the PanCam green (530 nm) filter. Detection limits in the green band for signal-to-noise ratios (S/N) > 10 are 49 parts per million (ppm) for anthracene, 145 ppm for pyrene, and 20 ppm for perylene. The anthracene detection limit improves to 7 ppm with use of the PanCam blue filter. We discuss soil-dependent detection limit constraints; use of UV excitation with other rover cameras, which provides higher spatial resolution; and the advantages of focused and wide-angle laser modes. Finally, we discuss application of L.I.F.E. techniques at multiple wavelengths for exploration of Mars analog extreme environments on Earth, including Icelandic hydrothermally altered basalts and the ice-covered lakes and glaciers of Dronning Maud Land, Antarctica.

FUNCTION DEPLOYMENT MODEL FOR CONTINUOUS AND DISCONTINUOUS INNOVATION PRODUCT DEVELOPMENT

This paper proposes the use of a Function Deployment Model (FDM) for continuous and discontinuous innovation product development. To demonstrate its usefulness in a real situation, the model was applied to the design problem of a multi-function sampling instrument used in the ESA (European Space Agency) Beagle2 Mars Express mission. The proposed model is based on Quality Function Deployment (QFD) techniques for translating customer needs to engineering characteristics. An Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) is used to prioritize customer requirements while a Linear Programming (LP) optimization method is used to determine the feasible solution of the design variables within limited resources. An application of the new model is made on a real life example to show the proposed model's ability and its applicability to other disciplines.

Exo/Astrobiology in Europe

The question of the chemical origins of life is engraved in the European scientific patrimony as it can be traced back to the pioneer ideas of Charles Darwin, Louis Pasteur, and more recently to Alexander Oparin. During the last decades, the European community of origin of life scientists has organized seven out of the twelve International Conferences on the Origins of Life held since 1957. This community contributed also to enlarge the field of research to the study of life in extreme environments and to the search for extraterrestrial life, i.e. exobiology in its classical definition or astrobiology if one uses a more NASA-inspired terminology. The present paper aims to describe the European science background in exo/astrobiology as well as the project of a European Network of Exo/Astrobiology.