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Peng H, Shahidi F. Metabolic, toxicological, chemical, and commercial perspectives on esterification of dietary polyphenols: a review. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2024; 64:7465-7504. [PMID: 36908213 DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2023.2185589] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/14/2023]
Abstract
Molecular modifications have been practiced for more than a century and nowadays they are widely applied in food, pharmaceutical, or other industries to manipulate the physicochemical, bioactivity, metabolic/catabolic, and pharmacokinetic properties. Among various structural modifications, the esterification/O-acylation has been well-established in altering lipophilicity and bioactivity of parent bioactive compounds, especially natural polyphenolics, while maintaining their high biocompatibility. Meanwhile, various classic chemical and enzymatic protocols and other recently emerged cell factory technology are being employed as viable esterification strategies. In this contribution, the main motivations of phenolic esterification, including the tendency to replace synthetic alkyl phenolics with safer alternatives in the food industry to improve the bioavailability of phenolics as dietary supplements/pharmaceuticals, are discussed. In addition, the toxicity, metabolism, and commercial application of synthetic and natural phenolics are briefly introduced. Under these contexts, the mechanisms and reaction features of several most prevalent chemical and enzymatic esterification pathways are demonstrated. In addition, insights into the studies of esterification modification of natural phenolic compounds and specific pros/cons of various reaction systems with regard to their practical application are provided.
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Affiliation(s)
- Han Peng
- Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
| | - Fereidoon Shahidi
- Department of Biochemistry, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
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Czech-Załubska K, Klich D, Jackowska-Tracz A, Didkowska A, Zarzyńska J, Anusz K. Assessment of dietary exposure to food additives used in Polish processed meat products. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2023; 40:1389-1411. [PMID: 37733006 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2023.2258994] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2023] [Accepted: 09/07/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Dietary exposure assessments have been performed for nitrites, phosphates, erythorbic acid, and sodium erythorbate in processed meat in Poland. The exposure has been estimated based on the maximum level of use of additives contained in Regulation - tier 2 and the concentration of additives in processed meat - tier 3, additionally for nitrites. Daily intake was estimated using 24-h recall, repeated three times. Exposure analyses were correlated with the frequency of occurrence of food additives based on label analysis (tiers 2a and 3a). The mean nitrite intake from processed meat at tier 2 was 0.1 mg/kg bw (143% ADI), 0.08 mg/kg bw (118% - ADI) at tier 2a, 0.03 mg/kg bw (43% - ADI) at tier 3, and 0.026 mg/kg bw (37% - ADI) at tier 3a. The mean intakes of phosphate and erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate from processed meat were 3.26 and 0.54 mg/kg bw (8.2% and 9% - ADI), respectively at tier 2. None of the respondents exceeded the ADIs for phosphates or erythorbic acid/sodium erythorbate. In contrast, nitrite consumption is of great concern because of significant ADI exceedances, particularly among young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katarzyna Czech-Załubska
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland
| | - Daniel Klich
- Institute of Animal Sciences, University of Life Sciences - SGGW, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Jackowska-Tracz
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland
| | - Anna Didkowska
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Zarzyńska
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland
| | - Krzysztof Anusz
- Department of Food Hygiene and Public Health Protection, Institute of Veterinary Medicine, Warsaw University of Life Sciences (SGGW), Warsaw, Poland
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Occurrence of synthetic phenolic antioxidants in foodstuffs from ten provinces in China and its implications for human dietary exposure. Food Chem Toxicol 2022; 165:113134. [PMID: 35588985 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2022.113134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2022] [Revised: 04/19/2022] [Accepted: 05/11/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Synthetic phenolic antioxidants (SPAs) are widely used as food additives to delay the oxidation rate of oils and oil products. The concentrations and compositions of SPAs in Chinese residents' most popular daily foods and the resulting exposure risk of SPAs are not clear. Therefore, this study collected food samples in 13 food categories (n = 289) from 10 provinces in China. At least one of the SPAs was detected in approximately 99.7% of foodstuffs, and the concentration of ∑SPAs ranged from not detected to 7830 (geometric mean (GM): 296 ng/g wet weight). 2,6-2 tert butyl p-1,4-benzoquinone (BHT-Q) was the main transformation product, but SPAs in food tend to exist in the parent form. A significant difference between food categories was analyzed. The highest GM of ΣSPAs occurred in cereals and cereal products, which was approximately 8 times higher than that in beverages. The estimated daily intakes of ΣSPAs in Chinese preschoolers, school-age children, adults and elderly individuals were 22200, 9970, 7540 and 7700 ng/kg bw/day, respectively. The exposure risks of SPAs decreased with age. This is the first simultaneous analysis of SPAs in multiple provinces and multiple categories of foodstuffs.
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Effectuality of chitosan biopolymer and its derivatives during antioxidant applications. Int J Biol Macromol 2020; 164:1342-1369. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2020.07.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2020] [Revised: 07/16/2020] [Accepted: 07/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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Bioaccessibility of Antioxidants and Fatty Acids from Fucus Spiralis. Foods 2020; 9:foods9040440. [PMID: 32268534 PMCID: PMC7230824 DOI: 10.3390/foods9040440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/20/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2020] [Accepted: 04/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Fucus spiralis is an edible brown seaweed (SW) found in the Portuguese Coast. It has been reported to have high antioxidant activity, which may elicit a potential use for the food industry. However, little information is available on how the SW behaves during the digestive process and how the freeze-drying process might affect the bioaccessibility of the different compounds. Therefore, antioxidant activity, total polyphenols, lipid, and fatty acid contents were measured before and after in vitro simulation of the human digestive process, both in fresh and freeze-dry SW. F. spiralis had a lipid content of 3.49 ± 0.3% of dry weight (DW), which is a usual amount described for this SW genus. The total lipid bioaccessibility was 12.1 ± 0.1%. The major omega-3 fatty acid detected was eicosapentaenoic acid, 7.5 ± 0.1%, with a bioaccessibility percentage of 13.0 ± 1.0%. Four different methods—total phenolic content (TPC), ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP), oxygen radical absorbance capacity (ORAC), and 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH)—were used to assess the antioxidant activity of F. spiralis. The bioaccessibility of the antioxidants studied, ranged between 42.7% and 59.5%, except the bioaccessibility of polyphenols in freeze-dried SW (23.0% ± 1.0%), suggesting that the freeze-drying process reduces the bioaccessibility of these compounds.
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Latos-Brozio M, Masek A. Biodegradable Polyester Materials Containing Gallates. Polymers (Basel) 2020; 12:polym12030677. [PMID: 32197535 PMCID: PMC7182846 DOI: 10.3390/polym12030677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2020] [Revised: 03/13/2020] [Accepted: 03/17/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Gallates are widely used as antioxidants in the food and cosmetics industries. The purpose of the study was to obtain pro-ecological materials based on biodegradable polyesters, such as polylactide (PLA) and polyhydroxyalkanoate (PHA), and gallates. Gallates (ethyl, propyl, octyl, and lauryl) have not been used so far in biodegradable polymers as stabilizers and indicators of aging. This manuscript examines the properties of gallates such as antioxidant capacity and thermal stability. This paper also presents the following analyses of polymer materials: specific migration of gallates from polymers, SEM microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), wide-angle X-ray diffraction, mechanical properties, surface free energy, and determination of change of color after controlled UV exposure, thermooxidation, and weathering. All gallates showed strong antioxidant properties and good thermal stability. Due to these properties, in particular their high oxidation temperature, gallates can be successfully used as polyester stabilizers. Biodegradable polyesters containing gallates can be an environmentally friendly alternative to petrochemical packaging materials.
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Fontana A, Guernelli S, Di Crescenzo A, Di Profio P, Palomba F, De Crescentini L, Baschieri A, Amorati R. Cardanol-like co-surfactants solubilized in pegylated micelles keep their antioxidant activity and preserve polyethylene glycol chains from oxidation. J Mol Liq 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molliq.2019.111465] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Rezanejad R, Ojagh SM, Heidarieh M, Raeisi M, Alishahi A, Rafiee G. The Impact of Diets Supplemented with Different Forms of Rosemary and BHA on Chemical, Microbial and Sensory Properties of Rainbow Trout Fillet. JOURNAL OF AQUATIC FOOD PRODUCT TECHNOLOGY 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/10498850.2019.1604594] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Reza Rezanejad
- Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Environmental Science, Gorgan University of Agriculture Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
- Nuclear Agriculture Research School, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Karaj, Iran
| | - Seyed Mahdi Ojagh
- Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Environmental Science, Gorgan University of Agriculture Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Marzieh Heidarieh
- Nuclear Agriculture Research School, Nuclear Science and Technology Research Institute, Karaj, Iran
| | - Mojtaba Raeisi
- Cereal Health Research Center, Golestan University of Medical Sciences, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Alireza Alishahi
- Department of Seafood Science and Technology, Faculty of Fisheries and Environmental Science, Gorgan University of Agriculture Sciences and Natural Resources, Gorgan, Iran
| | - Gholamreza Rafiee
- Department of Fisheries, Faculty of Natural Resources, University Of Tehran, Karaj, Iran
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Cossu A, Huang K, Cossu M, Tikekar RV, Nitin N. Fog, phenolic acids and UV-A light irradiation: A new antimicrobial treatment for decontamination of fresh produce. Food Microbiol 2018; 76:204-208. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fm.2018.05.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2017] [Revised: 01/19/2018] [Accepted: 05/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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10
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Alkhorayef M, Mansour A, Sulieman A, Alnaaimi M, Alduaij M, Babikir E, Bradley D. Evaluation of dose uncertainty in radiation processing using EPR spectroscopy and butylated hydroxytoluene rods as dosimetry system. Radiat Phys Chem Oxf Engl 1993 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.radphyschem.2017.05.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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11
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Wollinger A, Perrin É, Chahboun J, Jeannot V, Touraud D, Kunz W. Antioxidant activity of hydro distillation water residues from Rosmarinus officinalis L. leaves determined by DPPH assays. CR CHIM 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.crci.2015.12.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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12
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Phenolics and polyphenolics in foods, beverages and spices: Antioxidant activity and health effects – A review. J Funct Foods 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jff.2015.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1440] [Impact Index Per Article: 160.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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Van Loco J, Vandevijvere S, Cimenci O, Vinkx C, Goscinny S. Dietary exposure of the Belgian adult population to 70 food additives with numerical ADI. Food Control 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2015.01.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
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14
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Claus T, Maruyama SA, Palombini SV, Montanher PF, Bonafé EG, de Oliveira Santos Junior O, Matsushita M, Visentainer JV. Chemical characterization and use of artichoke parts for protection from oxidative stress in canola oil. Lebensm Wiss Technol 2015. [DOI: 10.1016/j.lwt.2014.12.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
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Nieva-Echevarría B, Manzanos MJ, Goicoechea E, Guillén MD. 2,6-Di-Tert-Butyl-Hydroxytoluene and Its Metabolites in Foods. Compr Rev Food Sci Food Saf 2014; 14:67-80. [PMID: 33401811 DOI: 10.1111/1541-4337.12121] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2014] [Accepted: 10/02/2014] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
2,6-Di-tert-butyl-hydroxytoluene (BHT, E-321) is a synthetic phenolic antioxidant which has been widely used as an additive in the food, cosmetic, and plastic industries for the last 70 y. Although it is considered safe for human health at authorized levels, its ubiquitous presence and the controversial toxicological data reported are of great concern for consumers. In recent years, special attention has been paid to these 14 metabolites or degradation products: BHT-CH2 OH, BHT-CHO, BHT-COOH, BHT-Q, BHT-QM, DBP, BHT-OH, BHT-OOH, TBP, BHQ, BHT-OH(t), BHT-OH(t)QM, 2-BHT, and 2-BHT-QM. These derived compounds could pose a human health risk from a food safety point of view, but they have been little studied. In this context, this review deals with the occurrence, origin, and fate of BHT in foodstuffs, its biotransformation into metabolites, their toxicological implications, their antioxidant and prooxidant properties, the analytical determination of metabolites in foods, and human dietary exposure. Moreover, noncontrolled additional sources of exposure to BHT and its metabolites are highlighted. These include their carryover from feed to fish, poultry and eggs, their presence in smoke flavorings, their migration from plastic pipelines and packaging to water and food, and their presence in natural environments, from which they can reach the food chain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bárbara Nieva-Echevarría
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
| | - María J Manzanos
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
| | - Encarnación Goicoechea
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
| | - María D Guillén
- Food Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, Lascaray Research Center, Univ. of the Basque Country (UPV/EHU), Paseo de la Universidad nº 7, 01006, Vitoria, Spain
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Hearty Á, Lau A, Roberts A. Chewing gum intake in Europe: a survey of intakes in France, Germany, Italy, Spain and the UK. Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess 2014; 31:1147-57. [PMID: 24720761 DOI: 10.1080/19440049.2014.913104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
A limited number of studies have examined chewing gum intakes in Europe. In the current study, chewing gum intakes were estimated in children, adolescents and adults via customised online questionnaires developed to collect data on patterns of chewing gum consumption (including usage, duration and gum variety) in September and October 2011. A total sample of chewing gum consumers composed of 1001 children and 5186 adolescents and adults from five European countries was included in the survey, with 79% and 66% of children and adolescents/adults reporting chewing gum in the previous 3 and 6 months, respectively. The intake of chewing gum on a per g basis was estimated by establishing the mean weights of each form of gum, and using factors for the frequency of chewing gum intake obtained through the online survey. Intakes of chewing gum at the mean, 90th and 95th percentile in children were 1.87, 3.79 and 6.59 g day(-1) (equivalent to 0.75, 1.67 and 2.40 pieces/day), respectively. In adolescents and adults, intakes at the mean, 90th and 95th percentile were 1.87, 5.40 and 8.00 g day(-1) (equivalent to 0.98, 3.00 and 4.00 pieces/day), respectively. Intakes were similar across the five countries. Chewing gum use was significantly higher in older compared with younger children and was significantly higher in adolescents compared with older adults. The data reported herein provide a reliable resource for chewing gum intakes in Europe and will be important for estimating exposure to food additives and flavourings intended for use in chewing gum.
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Affiliation(s)
- Áine Hearty
- a Intertek Scientific & Regulatory Consultancy , Farnborough , UK
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Snoussi A, Chaabouni MM, Bouzouita N, Kachouri F. Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Myrtus communis L. Floral Buds Essential Oil. JOURNAL OF ESSENTIAL OIL RESEARCH 2011. [DOI: 10.1080/10412905.2011.9700440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Snoussi
- a Ecole Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires , 58 Avenue Alain Savary, 1003, Tunis, Tunisia
| | | | - Nabiha Bouzouita
- a Ecole Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires , 58 Avenue Alain Savary, 1003, Tunis, Tunisia
- b University of Tunis El Manar, Laboratory of Structural Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences of Tunis , 2092, El Manar, Tunisia
| | - Faten Kachouri
- c Ecole Supérieure des Industries Alimentaires , 58 Avenue Alain Savary, 1003, Tunis, Tunisia
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18
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Scientific Opinion on the re-evaluation of butylated hydroxyanisole - BHA (E 320) as a food additive. EFSA J 2011. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2392] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Le Donne C, Piccinelli R, Sette S, Leclercq C. Overview of existing European food consumption databases: critical aspects in relation to their use for the assessment of dietary exposure to additives, flavourings and residues of food contact materials. Int J Food Sci Nutr 2010; 62:121-32. [DOI: 10.3109/09637486.2010.513679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
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20
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Pattono D, Battaglini L, Barberio A, De Castelli L, Valiani A, Varisco G, Scatassa M, Davit P, Pazzi M, Civera T. Presence of synthetic antioxidants in organic and conventional milk. Food Chem 2009. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodchem.2008.11.055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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21
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Intake assessment for benzoates in different subgroups of the Flemish population. Food Chem Toxicol 2008; 46:717-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.09.100] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2006] [Revised: 07/26/2007] [Accepted: 09/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Labrador V, Fernández Freire P, Pérez Martín JM, Hazen MJ. Cytotoxicity of butylated hydroxyanisole in Vero cells. Cell Biol Toxicol 2006; 23:189-99. [PMID: 17149658 DOI: 10.1007/s10565-006-0153-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/11/2006] [Accepted: 10/11/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA) is perhaps the most extensively used synthetic antioxidant in the food and cosmetic industry, although considerable controversy exists in the literature regarding the safety of this compound. Most in vitro studies describing the effects of BHA have been performed in cancer cells, but it is unclear whether normal cells are equally susceptible to BHA exposure. The present study investigate the toxic potential of BHA in mammalian cells, using biochemical and morphological parameters, which reveal interference with structures essential for cell survival, proliferation and/or function. Cell growth inhibition was assessed by using colorimetric assays, whereas cellular alterations after BHA exposure, were evaluated using conventional light and fluorescence microscopy. Low doses of BHA exerted a significant cytotoxic effect, associated with loss of mitochondrial function. As the concentration of BHA was increased, morphological alterations in critical subcellular targets such as lysosomes, mitochondria and actin cytoskeleton, were observed. In parallel, BHA induced an irreversible loss of cell proliferative capacity, preceding apoptosis induction. Thus, the dose-dependent activity of BHA on Vero cells appears to be cytotoxic as well as cytostatic. Our observations, although simplified with respect to the in vivo situations, allowed the assessment of the specific damage at the cellular level, and provide some clue about the effects of BHA in non-tumoral mammalian cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- V Labrador
- Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain
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Kvist PH, Iburg T, Aalbaek B, Gerstenberg M, Schoier C, Kaastrup P, Buch-Rasmussen T, Hasselager E, Jensen HE. Biocompatibility of an enzyme-based, electrochemical glucose sensor for short-term implantation in the subcutis. Diabetes Technol Ther 2006; 8:546-59. [PMID: 17037969 DOI: 10.1089/dia.2006.8.546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Continuous glucose measurements provide improved glycemic control and may prevent hypoglycemia and long-term complications of diabetes. One of the most promising techniques is the short-term implantation of electrochemical glucose sensors in subcutis. However, the inflammatory reaction to these sensors may lead to bioinstability of sensor measurements. The purpose of the present investigation was to examine factors contributing to the observed subcutaneous inflammatory reaction to an enzyme-based electrochemical glucose sensor for continuous glucose measurements. The sensor biocompatibility was assessed in vitro and in vivo. METHODS A toxicological assessment was performed on sensor materials and leachables, and the endotoxin content of sensors was determined by a Limulus amoebocyte lysate (LAL) test. Moreover, as a consequence of permanent penetration of the skin by the sensor the role of bacterial migration to the tissue was investigated. In vivo biocompatibility was investigated through histological examination of implanted sensor membranes for 3 days in pigs. Additionally, the effect of needle size and type (normal vs. inserter needle) on tissue trauma at sensor insertion was evaluated, and the healing of subcutis was assessed histologically from 3 to 14 days after removal of sensors. RESULTS The toxicological assessment and the LAL test showed no concerns in a 3-day implantation scenario, and bacterial migration to the subcutis could not be detected. The histological examination showed that a reduction in needle size reduced the extent of inflammation to very low levels, and that the different sensor membranes showed similar extent and type of inflammation. Additionally, the extent of subcutaneous tissue reaction after removal of sensors declined gradually over time and returned to near-normal levels after 2 weeks. CONCLUSION The electrochemical enzyme-based glucose sensor for continuous glucose measurements in subcutis is acceptable from a biocompatibility point of view. Reducing the inserter needle in size reduces the trauma induced at sensor implantation to neglible levels. Furthermore, the tissue reaction to the sensor returns to near-normal 2 weeks after the sensor has been removed following a 3-day implantation period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Helding Kvist
- Department of Insulin Pharmacology, Novo Nordisk, Maaloev, Denmark., Veterinary Pathobiology, Royal Veterinary and Agricultural University, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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Soubra L, Sarkis D, Hilan C, Verger P. Dietary exposure of children and teenagers to benzoates, sulphites, butylhydroxyanisol (BHA) and butylhydroxytoluen (BHT) in Beirut (Lebanon). Regul Toxicol Pharmacol 2006; 47:68-77. [PMID: 16996185 DOI: 10.1016/j.yrtph.2006.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 62] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2006] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The acceptable daily intake (ADI) for a considered chemical is by definition the amount of that substance which can be ingested every day during the life time without appreciable health risk. The theoretical risk of exceeding the ADI for benzoates, sulphites, butylhydroxyanisol (BHA) and butylhydroxytoluen (BHT) has often been examined on the basis of worst case scenario. The aim of this paper is to assess the actual intake of the food additives listed above for a group of the Lebanese population (students aged between 9 and 18 years old) likely to be highly exposed to food additives through the consumption of processed foods. Dietary exposure was obtained by combining food consumption data with food additives levels determined by chemical analysis. Food products available in Lebanon and containing added benzoates, sulphites, BHA and BHT were identified. Overall 420 samples of foods and beverages were analysed. The determination of food additives residue levels was carried out according to the official methods adopted in "Lebanese Institute for agronomic research" (IRAL) on food as consumed. The acceptable daily intake (ADI) could be exceeded for sulphites and BHT by a fraction of the population, in particular within children of 9-13 years old. Among all food additive-containing foods, the highest contributors were: soft drinks to benzoates intake, nuts and canned juices to sulphites intake, bread and biscuits to BHA intake and chewing gum to BHT intake.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Soubra
- INRA Met@risk, INA P-G, 16, rue Claude Bernard, 75005 Paris, France
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Kitagawa S. Inhibitory effects of polyphenols on p-glycoprotein-mediated transport. Biol Pharm Bull 2006; 29:1-6. [PMID: 16394499 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.29.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Overexpression of P-glycoprotein (P-gp), a plasma membrane transporter which extrudes chemotherapeutic agents out of cells, has been associated with the multidrug resistance (MDR) of cancer cells. It has been revealed that flavonoids and other polyphenols inhibit P-gp activity. Due to their inhibitory activities of polyphenols on P-gp function and their physiological safety, they are possible candidates for modulators of MDR. To determine suitable candidates, it is important to clarify the structure-activity relationships of their inhibitory activities on P-gp function. Determining the structure-activity relationships is also meaningful because the intake of dietary polyphenols may also alter drug pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics via inhibition of P-gp-mediated drug efflux in tissues such as the intestinal epithelium, blood-brain barrier, hepatocytes and renal tubular cells. This is a review of our recent investigations using multidrug-resistant P-gp overexpressing KB-C2 cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Kitagawa
- Niigata University of Pharmacy and Applied Life Sciences, Niigata, Japan.
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26
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Arcella D, Le Donne C, Leclercq C. Dietary exposure to chemicals within the process of risk assessment: possible applications to substances that may cause allergic reactions. Proc Nutr Soc 2005; 64:418-25. [PMID: 16313683 DOI: 10.1079/pns2005451] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Exposure assessment is one of the key parts of the risk assessment process. This task is crucial when evaluating substances for which only intake of toxicologically-important amounts can lead to adverse health effects. Ideally, dietary exposure to hazardous substances can be assessed by combining data on concentration in all food products with data on their consumption. However, it is considered to be neither cost-effective nor necessary to collect detailed data for every substance, and a stepwise procedure is commonly used to focus resources on the most important issues. Screening methods, designed to look for 'worst case' situations, are first used to target chemicals that might be of health concern for the general population or for certain at-risk groups. The quality of the dietary exposure assessments not only depends on the quality of the data collected, but also on the integration tools used for initial screening or for the eventual more precise estimations. A particular challenge is the evaluation of food allergens and components causing other forms of intolerances, since no reliable data seem to be currently available on the type of exposure (amounts and duration) required to induce a food allergy. A different approach from that used for dietary exposure to other hazardous substances has to be adopted. However, the methodologies (such as those used to collect food consumption data) and databases (in particular, information about food labels) developed in such a context could be useful to investigate the exposure conditions leading to the development of food allergies.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Arcella
- National Research Institute for Food and Nutrition, Rome, Italy
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27
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Kitagawa S, Nabekura T, Kamiyama S, Takahashi T, Nakamura Y, Kashiwada Y, Ikeshiro Y. Effects of alkyl gallates on P-glycoprotein function. Biochem Pharmacol 2005; 70:1262-6. [PMID: 16139251 DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2005.07.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2005] [Revised: 07/20/2005] [Accepted: 07/20/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In this study, we examined the effects of the food antioxidants, alkyl gallates, on the function of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) and elucidated the importance of alkyl chains and gallic acid moieties on the activity of P-gp. We examined the effects of three alkyl (n-butyl, n-octyl and n-dodecyl) gallates and their related compounds on the cellular accumulation and efflux of rhodamine 123 and daunorubicin in P-gp overexpressing KB-C2 cells. Alkyl gallates increased the cellular accumulation of these P-gp substrates dependent on their alkyl chain lengths by inhibiting the efflux of the substrates. n-Dodecylresorcinol also increased the accumulation, but its effect was less than that of n-dodecyl gallate. However, either lauric acid or n-dodecyl-beta-d-maltoside, which does not have a phenol group, did not increase the accumulation. The results indicated that both the gallic acid moiety and a long alkyl chain play important roles in the modification of P-gp function. The cytotoxicity of daunorubicin was recovered in the presence of alkyl gallates possibly due to their inhibition of P-gp function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shuji Kitagawa
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Niigata University of Pharmacy and Applied Life Sciences, Japan.
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28
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Frank J. Beyond vitamin E supplementation: an alternative strategy to improve vitamin E status. JOURNAL OF PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 162:834-43. [PMID: 16008112 DOI: 10.1016/j.jplph.2005.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
Vitamin E has many reported health effects and is recognized as the most important lipid-soluble, chain-breaking antioxidant in the body. Vitamin E has also been reported to play a regulatory role in cell signalling and gene expression. Epidemiological studies show that high blood concentrations of vitamin E are associated with a decreased risk of cardiovascular diseases and certain cancers. Yet, high doses of supplemental vitamin E have been associated with an elevated risk of heart failure and all-cause mortality. Therefore, establishing alternative strategies to improve vitamin E status without potentially increasing mortality risk may prove important for optimal nutrition. To identify dietary phenolic compounds capable of increasing blood and tissue concentrations of vitamin E, selected polyphenols were incorporated into standardized, semi-synthetic diets and fed to male Sprague-Dawley rats for 4 weeks. Blood plasma and liver tissue concentrations of alpha-T and gamma-Twere determined. The flavanols (+)-catechin and (-)-epicatechin, the flavonol quercetin, and the synthetic preservative butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT) markedly elevated the amount of alpha-T in plasma and liver. The sesame lignan sesamin and cereal alkylresorcinols substantially increased the concentrations of gamma-T, but not alpha-T, in the liver. Sesamin also increased gamma-T concentrations in plasma. In order to study the impact of selected polyphenols on the enzymatic degradation of vitamin E, HepG2 cells were incubated together with phenolic compounds in the presence of tocopherols and the formation of metabolites was determined. Sesamin, at concentrations as low as 2 microM, almost completely inhibited tocopherol side-chain degradation and cereal alkylresorcinols inhibited it, dose-dependently (5-20 microM), by 20-80%. BHT, quercetin, (-)-epicatechin, and (+)-catechin had no effect on tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase activity in HepG2 cells. In order to confirm the inhibition of gamma-T metabolism by sesame lignans in humans, sesame oil or corn oil muffins together with deuterium-labelled d6-alpha-Tand d2-gamma-Twere given to volunteers. Urine samples were collected for 72 h and analysed for deuterated and non-deuterated tocopherol metabolites. Consumption of sesame oil muffins significantly reduced the urinary excretion of d2-gamma-CEHC and total (sum of labelled and unlabelled) gamma-CEHC. Overall, the findings from these studies show that the tested dietary phenolic compounds increase vitamin E concentrations through different mechanisms and, thus, have the potential to improve vitamin E status without the use of vitamin E supplements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Frank
- Department of Food Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Box 7051, 750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
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29
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Okubo T, Yokoyama Y, Kano K, Kano I. Molecular Mechanism of Cell Death Induced by the Antioxidant tert-Butylhydroxyanisole in Human Monocytic Leukemia U937 Cells. Biol Pharm Bull 2004; 27:295-302. [PMID: 14993791 DOI: 10.1248/bpb.27.295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A phenolic antioxidant 3-tert-butyl-4-hydroxyanisole (BHA) is a widely used food additive. BHA had cytotoxicity in human monocytic leukemia U937 cells. BHA at 0.75 mM caused nuclear condensation and fragmentation, structural damage in mitochondria, decrease in mitochondrial transmembrane potential, and internucleosomal DNA cleavage. It induced the activities of caspase-3 and/or -7, -6, -8 and -9, especially high when DEVD-MCA was the substrate (caspase-3 and/or -7). DEVDase activity increased in time- and dose-dependent manner and high activity was observed in lysates of cells treated for 3 h at 0.75 mM. Addition of GSH (reduced glutathione) during the treatment of cells with BHA inhibited the induction of DEVDase activity, and the intracellular GSH level decreased as the concentration of BHA was raised. Intracellular ATP levels decreased in time- and dose-dependent manner when the cells were treated with BHA in the presence or absence of glucose. Enzyme activities involved in the respiratory chain were assayed with the mitochondrial fraction prepared from U937 cells. BHA distinctly inhibited NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex I) and cytochrome c oxidase (complex IV) at low concentrations. Succinate-ubiquinone oxidoreductase (complex II) was also inhibited, but to somewhat less extent. Without mitochondrial enzymes, BHA stimulated the ubiquinol-dependent reduction of cytochrome c (complex III), but it might have some detrimental effects on the mitochondrial enzyme reaction of complex III. The inhibition of mitochondrial oxidative phosphorylation might corroborate the mechanistic evidence for apoptosis of leukemia cells by BHA. Cell death induced by BHA is primarily ascribable to apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomoko Okubo
- Department of Environmental Health and Toxicology, Tokyo Metropolitan Institute of Public Health, Tokyo, Japan.
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30
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Frank J, Lundh T, Parker RS, Swanson JE, Vessby B, Kamal-Eldin A. Dietary (+)-Catechin and BHT Markedly Increase α-Tocopherol Concentrations in Rats by a Tocopherol-ω-Hydroxylase–Independent Mechanism. J Nutr 2003; 133:3195-9. [PMID: 14519810 DOI: 10.1093/jn/133.10.3195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of dietary (+)-catechin (CAT) and BHT on plasma and tissue concentrations of alpha-tocopherol (alpha-T), gamma-tocopherol (gamma-T) and cholesterol (C) were studied in male Sprague-Dawley rats. The rats were fed the compounds during a 4-wk period at concentrations of 2 g/kg in standardized diets, low but adequate in vitamin E, with 2 g/kg cholesterol. The CAT-regimen did not affect weight gain, feed intake or organ weights. BHT did not affect feed intake but lowered the body weight and the amount of liver lipids and increased the weights of livers and lungs relative to the body weight. Rats consuming CAT had 2.5-3.5-fold increased plasma, liver and lung alpha-T concentrations, but C concentrations remained unchanged. BHT-feeding resulted in 2.4- and 1.7-fold elevation in alpha-T but approximately 50% decrease in gamma-T concentrations in blood plasma and liver, respectively. BHT also lowered total C in the liver without affecting the concentration of C in the liver lipids. To investigate whether the alpha-T-sparing action of the studied compounds was due to the inhibition of tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase, HepG2 cells were incubated with CAT or BHT in the presence of delta-tocopherol (delta-T) and the 3'- and 5'-delta-carboxychromanol metabolites in the media were analyzed by GC/MS. Neither CAT nor BHT inhibited tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase activity in hepatocyte cultures; CAT was also inactive in a rat microsomal assay. In conclusion, both dietary CAT and BHT markedly increased alpha-T concentrations in plasma and organs of Sprague-Dawley rats by a mechanism that apparently does not involve inhibition of tocopherol-omega-hydroxylase, a key enzyme in tocopherol catabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jan Frank
- Department of Food Science, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, S-750 07 Uppsala, Sweden.
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31
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Gilsenan MB, Lambe J, Gibney MJ. Irish National Food Ingredient Database: application for assessing patterns of additive usage in foods. FOOD ADDITIVES AND CONTAMINANTS 2002; 19:1105-15. [PMID: 12623670 DOI: 10.1080/0265203021000035353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Patterns of food additive usage in the Irish food supply and changes in patterns of usage between 1995-97 and 1998-99 were assessed by means of an Irish National Food Ingredient Database (INFID). Of the 300 additives permitted for use according to the European Union food additives Directives, some 54% were recorded in foods in INFID. Colours, emulsifiers and acids were the most frequently used additive categories, representing 18, 13 and 12% of the total additives used, respectively. Colours were most commonly recorded in sauces (n = 182 brands, 26% of sauces), emulsifiers were most commonly recorded in biscuits (n = 181 brands, 47% of biscuits) and acids were most commonly recorded in sauces (304 brands, 43% of sauces). Carotenes (E160a), Annatto (E160b), mono- and diglycerides of fatty acids (E471) and citric acid (E330) were the most commonly used colour, emulsifier and acid, respectively. All diet soft drinks (n = 37), low-fat spreads (n = 25) and liver pâtés (n = 10) recorded the use of at least one additive. When expressed in terms of the number of brands that contain additives, sauces (n = 522, 73% of sauces), biscuits (n = 323, 84% of biscuits) and preserves (n = 321, 85% of preserves) were ranked highest. For most categories of additive (n = 24), there appeared to be a minimal change in qualitative additive usage between 1995-97 and 1998-99. However, there was a significant increase in the frequency of use of emulsifiers (p < 0.001), acids (p < 0.01), sweeteners (p < 0.05) and acidity regulators (p < 0.05), and a significant decrease in the frequency of use of antioxidants (p < 0.05) during the period 1998-99 compared with 1995-97. Despite changes in additive usage patterns, it appeared that changes in the types of brands on sale between both periods were more apparent than actual changes in qualitative ingredient formulations across brands, as some 17% of brands that were on sale in 1995-97 were no longer on sale in 1998-99.
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Affiliation(s)
- M B Gilsenan
- Nutrition Lab, Department of Clinical Medicine, The Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James's Hospital, James's Street, Dublin 8, Ireland.
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32
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Turrini A, Lombardi-Boccia G. The formulation of the market basket of the Italian total diet 1994–96. Nutr Res 2002. [DOI: 10.1016/s0271-5317(02)00428-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
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