The casein mRNA decay changes in parallel with the poly(A) tail length in the mouse mammary gland

Lessons from animal models of endocrine disorders caused by defects of protein folding in the secretory pathway

Most peptide hormones originate from secretory protein precursors synthesized within the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). In this specialized organelle, the newly-made prohormones must fold to their native state. Completion of prohormone folding usually occurs prior to migration through the secretory pathway, as unfolded/misfolded prohormones are retained by mechanisms collectively known as ER quality control. Not only do most monomeric prohormones need to fold properly, but many also dimerize or oligomerize within the ER. If oligomerization occurs before completion of monomer folding then when a poorly folded peptide prohormone is retained by quality control mechanisms, it may confer ER retention upon its oligomerization partners. Conversely, oligomerization between well-folded and improperly folded partners might help to override ER quality control, resulting in rescue of misfolded forms. Both scenarios appear to be possible in different animal models of endocrine disorders caused by genetic defects of protein folding in the secretory pathway. In this paper, we briefly review three such conditions, including familial neurohypophyseal diabetes insipidus, insulin-deficient diabetes mellitus, and hypothyroidism with defective thyroglobulin.

Endoplasmic reticulum stress in vasopressin neurons of familial diabetes insipidus model mice: aggregate formation and mRNA poly(A) tail shortening

The immunoglobulin heavy chain binding protein (BiP) is an endoplasmic reticulum (ER) chaperone, which binds to newly synthesized secretory and transmembrane proteins to facilitate protein folding. BiP mRNA is expressed in the arginine vasopressin (AVP) neurons in the supraoptic nucleus of wild-type mice even in basal conditions, and the expression levels increase in response to dehydration. These data suggest that AVP neurons are subjected to ER stress. Familial neurohypophysial diabetes insipidus (FNDI) is caused by mutations in the gene locus of AVP. The mutant proteins could accumulate in the ER and possibly increase ER stress in the AVP neurons. We bred mice possessing a mutation causing FNDI, which manifested progressive polyuria, as do the patients with FNDI. Electron microscopic analyses demonstrated that aggregates accumulated in the ER of AVP neurons in FNDI mice. Despite polyuria, which could potentially induce dehydration, AVP mRNA expression was decreased in the supraoptic nucleus, and the AVP mRNA poly(A) tail length was shortened in FNDI mice compared with wild-type mice. Incubation of hypothalamic explants of wild-type mice with ER stressors caused shortening of the poly(A) tail length of AVP mRNA, accompanied by decreases in the expression. These data revealed a mechanism by which ER stress decreases poly(A) tail length of AVP mRNA, and this reduces the load of unfolded proteins that form the aggregates in ER of the AVP neurons in FNDI mice.

Poly(A) tail length of neurohypophysial hormones is shortened under endoplasmic reticulum stress

Familial neurohypophysial diabetes insipidus (FNDI) is caused by mutations in the gene locus of arginine vasopressin (AVP), an antidiuretic hormone. Although the carriers are normal at birth, polyuria and polydipsia appear several months or years later. Previously, we made mice possessing a mutation causing FNDI and reported that the mice manifested progressive polyuria as do the patients with FNDI. Here, we report that decreases in AVP mRNA expression in the supraoptic nucleus were accompanied by shortening of the AVP mRNA poly(A) tail length in the FNDI mice, a case in which aggregates accumulated in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of the hypothalamic AVP neurons. Expression levels of AVP heteronuclear RNA in the supraoptic nucleus, a sensitive indicator for gene transcription, were not significantly different between FNDI and wild-type mice. Incubation of hypothalamic explants of wild-type mice with ER stressors (thapsigargin and tunicamycin) caused shortening of the poly(A) tail length of AVP and oxytocin mRNA, accompanied by decreases in their expression. On the other hand, an ER stress-reducing molecule (tauroursodeoxycholate) increased the poly(A) tail length as well as the expression levels of AVP and oxytocin mRNA. These data reveal a novel mechanism by which ER stress decreases poly(A) tail length of neurohypophysial hormones, probably to reduce the load of unfolded proteins.

Constitutive activation of JAK2 in mammary epithelium elevates Stat5 signalling, promotes alveologenesis and resistance to cell death, and contributes to tumourigenesis

Signalling through the janus kinase (JAK)/signal transducer and activator of transcription (Stat) pathway is required at different stages of mammary gland development, and this pathway is frequently hyper-activated in cancer, including tumours of the breast. Stats 3, 5 and 6 have important roles in the differentiation and survival of mammary alveolar cells, but somewhat paradoxically, both Stat3 and 5 can have oncogenic activity in the mammary gland. Constitutive activation of JAK2 could be anticipated to result in hyper-activation of Stats 1, 3, 5 and 6 with concomitant cell transformation, although the outcome is difficult to envisage, particularly since Stats 3 and 5 play opposing roles in normal mammary gland development. Here, we show that expression of a constitutively active JAK2 mutant, JAK2 V617F, leads to hyper-activation of Stat5 in mammary epithelial cells (MECs), and transgenic mice expressing JAK2 V617F specifically in the mammary gland exhibit accelerated alveologenesis during pregnancy and delayed post-lactational regression. Overexpressing JAK2 V617F in MECs in vitro results in elevated proliferation and resistance to cell death. Furthermore, constitutively active JAK2 enhances anchorage-independent cell growth in the presence of a co-operating oncogene and accelerates tumourigenesis in a xenograft model. Taken together, our results provide insights into signalling downstream of constitutively active JAK2 and could be important for understanding the molecular mechanisms of breast tumourigenesis.

Nitric oxide triggers mammary gland involution after weaning: remodelling is delayed but not impaired in mice lacking inducible nitric oxide synthase

During mammary gland involution, different signals are required for apoptosis and tissue remodelling. To explore the role of NO in the involution of mammary tissue after lactation, NOS2 (inducible nitric oxide synthase)-KO (knockout) mice were used. No apparent differences were observed between NOS2-KO and WT (wild-type) animals during pregnancy and lactation. However, upon cessation of lactation, a notable delay in involution was observed, compared with WT mice. NOS2-KO mice showed increased phosphorylation of STAT (signal transducer and activator of transcription) 5 during weaning, concomitant with increased β-casein mRNA levels when compared with weaned WT glands, both hallmarks of the lactating period. In contrast, activation of STAT3, although maximal at 24 h after weaning, was significantly reduced in NOS2-KO mice. STAT3 and NF-κB (nuclear factor κB) signalling pathways are known to be crucial in the regulation of cell death and tissue remodelling during involution. Indeed, activation of both STAT3 and NF-κB was observed in WT mice during weaning, concomitant with an increased apoptotic rate. During the same period, less apoptosis, in terms of caspase 3 activity, was found in NOS2-KO mice and NF-κB activity was significantly reduced when compared with WT mice. Furthermore, the activation of the NF-κB signalling pathway is delayed in NOS2-KO mice when compared with WT mice. These results emphasize the role of NO in the fine regulation of the weaning process, since, in the absence of NOS2, the switching on of the cascades that trigger involution is hindered for a time, retarding apoptosis of the epithelial cells and extracellular matrix remodelling.

Molecular beacons can assess changes in expression and 3'-polyadenylation of human eNOS mRNA

The endothelium plays an essential role in maintaining vascular homeostasis, and it fulfills this role by modulating intracellular signaling and gene expression in response to chemical and mechanical stimuli. Assessing changes in endothelial gene expression is essential to understanding how physiological and pathophysiological processes modulate vascular homeostasis. Here we describe the use of molecular beacons to rapidly and quantitatively assess expression and 3'-polyadenylation of a gene that is important for vascular homeostasis, endothelial nitric oxide synthase (eNOS). Single- and dual-fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) molecular beacon hybridization assays were developed to measure changes in mRNA levels and 3'-polyadenylation, respectively, in primary human endothelial cell cultures subjected to laminar shear stress or statin treatment. Optimized beacon hybridization assays took approximately 15 min to perform, and eNOS mRNA levels were validated by quantitative real-time RT-PCR. Competitive inhibition assays and posttranscriptional silencing of eNOS expression were used to verify the specificity of molecular beacon fluorescence. Finally, the dual-FRET method was used to assess eNOS polyadenylation in tissues isolated from mice subjected to exercise training. These data demonstrate that molecular beacons can be used to rapidly and efficiently measure endothelial gene expression and 3'-polyadenylation. This approach could easily be adapted for studies of other endothelial genes and has promise for applications in live endothelial cells.

Translational regulation of milk protein synthesis at secretory activation

Studies conducted since the 1970s have revealed that the production of milk proteins in the mammary gland under the influence of lactogenic hormones (insulin, prolactin, and glucocorticoids) is regulated at multiple levels. Whereas earlier studies concentrated on transcriptional regulation and stabilization of milk protein mRNAs, more recent studies have revealed that translation of milk protein mRNAs is also dependent on lactogenic hormones. A general stimulation of translation in mammary epithelial cells is caused by amino acids (as signaling molecules) or by phosphorylation of the translational regulator 4E-BP1 in a synergistic response to signals from insulin and prolactin. However, a selective enhancement of milk protein mRNA translation is caused by cytoplasmic polyadenylation of mRNA, again in a synergistic response to these two hormones. Preliminary evidence indicates that the latter effect depends on the existence of a cytoplasmic polyadenylation element (CPE) in milk protein mRNAs and phosphorylation of its binding protein, CPEB. Experiments in whole animals, organ explants, and cell culture have shown that the poly(A) length of milk protein mRNAs changes as a function of the lactation cycle. Interestingly, cytoplasmic polyadenylation is likely to be responsible for the selective hormone-dependent enhancement of both translation and stability of milk protein mRNAs.

Stability of casein mRNA is ensured by structural interactions between the 3′-untranslated region and poly(A) tail via the HuR and poly(A)-binding protein complex

The maintenance of mRNA stability has emerged as a mechanism of post-transcriptional control. We demonstrate that beta-casein mRNA stability is dictated by the poly(A) tail and sequences in the 3'-UTR. An in vitro mRNA decay assay revealed that beta-casein mRNA with a long poly(A) tail had higher stability than that with a short poly(A) tail. The addition of poly(A) homopolymer and 3'-UTR cRNA as competitor induced rapid degradation of beta-casein mRNA. The interaction between full-length beta-casein mRNA and poly(A) homopolymer was inhibited by the addition of the 3'-UTR cRNA in the lysates, which indicates that one region of the 3'-UTR associates with the poly(A) tail through an RNA-protein interaction. The putative AU-rich element (ARE) is present at nt 897-905; deletion and mutation analysis showed that the ARE site was required for maintaining the stability of the beta-casein 3'-UTR. In the immunoprecipitation analysis, the poly(A)-binding protein (PABP) and the RNA-binding protein HuR were pulled down by 3'-UTR cRNA, and the absence of the ARE site reduced the binding of these proteins. These experiments further revealed that the rapid degradation of beta-casein mRNA was induced by incubation with HuR- and PABP-depleted RRLs. Collectively, our results suggest that beta-casein mRNA is protected from degradation by virtue of the structural interaction between the 3'-UTR and poly(A) tail via a protein complex of HuR and PABP.

Sarcoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump mRNA stability in cardiac and smooth muscle: role of poly A+ tail length

Transcripts of the sarco/endoplasmic reticulum Ca2+ pump SERCA2 are alternatively spliced to produce SERCA2a (expressed in left ventricular muscle (LVM)) and SERCA2b (in stomach smooth muscle (SSM)) mRNA that use different polyadenylation sequences. SERCA2 mRNA in LVM is more stable than in SSM. Here, we report that the SERCA2 poly A+ tail length in LVM (32 +/- 2 bases) is longer than in SSM (20 +/- 1). In the in vitro decay assays, the 3'-region mRNA of SERCA2a or SERCA2b is more stable when the poly A+ tail is longer. However, when the poly A+ tail length is similar for SERCA2a and SERCA2b, the SERCA2a RNA is more stable. Thus, the longer poly A+ tail may contribute to, but does not appear to be the sole determinant of, greater stability of SERCA2 mRNA in LVM than in SSM.