Pit-1 mediates cell-specific and cAMP-induced transcription of the tilapia GH gene

Negative Glucocorticoid Response-Like Element from the First Intron of the Chicken Growth Hormone Gene Represses Gene Expression in the Rat Pituitary Tumor Cell Line

The effects of introns, especially the first intron, on the regulation of gene expression remains unclear. Therefore, the objective of the present study was to investigate the transcriptional regulatory function of intron 1 on the chicken growth hormone (cGH) gene in the rat pituitary tumor cell line (GH4-C1). Transient transfection using first-intron-inserted cGH complete coding sequences (CDSs) and non-intron-inserted cGH CDS plasmids, quantitative RT-PCR (qRT-PCR) and western blot assays were used to detect the expression of cGH. The reporter gene assay was also used to investigate the effect of a series of fragments in the first intron of cGH on gene expression in GH4-C1. All of the results revealed that a 200-bp fragment located in the +485/+684 region of intron 1 was essential for repressing the expression of cGH. Further informatics analysis showed that there was a cluster of 13 transcriptional factor binding sites (TFBSs) in the +485/+684 region of the cGH intron 1. Disruption of a glucocorticoid response-like element (the 19-nucleotide sequence 5'-AGGCTTGACAGTGACCTCC-3') containing a T-box motif (TGACCT) located within this DNA fragment increased the expression of the reporter gene in GH4-C1. In addition, an electrophoretic mobility shift assay (EMSA) revealed a glucocorticoid receptor (GR) protein of rat binding to the glucocorticoid response-like element. Together, these results indicate that there is a negative glucocorticoid response-like element (nGRE) located in the +591/+609 region within the first intron of cGH, which is essential for the down-regulation of cGH expression.

Calcium and other signalling pathways in neuroendocrine regulation of somatotroph functions

Relative to mammals, the neuroendocrine control of pituitary growth hormone (GH) secretion and synthesis in teleost fish involves numerous stimulatory and inhibitory regulators, many of which are delivered to the somatotrophs via direct innervation. Among teleosts, how multifactorial regulation of somatotroph functions are mediated at the level of post-receptor signalling is best characterized in goldfish. Supplemented with recent findings, this review focuses on the known intracellular signal transduction mechanisms mediating the ligand- and function-specific actions in multifactorial control of GH release and synthesis, as well as basal GH secretion, in goldfish somatotrophs. These include membrane voltage-sensitive ion channels, Na(+)/H(+) antiport, Ca(2+) signalling, multiple pharmacologically distinct intracellular Ca(2+) stores, cAMP/PKA, PKC, nitric oxide, cGMP, MEK/ERK and PI3K. Signalling pathways mediating the major neuroendocrine regulators of mammalian somatotrophs, as well as those in other major teleost study model systems are also briefly highlighted. Interestingly, unlike mammals, spontaneous action potential firings are not observed in goldfish somatotrophs in culture. Furthermore, three goldfish brain somatostatin forms directly affect pituitary GH secretion via ligand-specific actions on membrane ion channels and intracellular Ca(2+) levels, as well as exert isoform-specific action on basal and stimulated GH mRNA expression, suggesting the importance of somatostatins other than somatostatin-14.

Modular changes of cis-regulatory elements from two functional Pit1 genes in the duplicated genome of Cyprinus carpio

The pituitary-specific transcription factor Pit1 is involved in its own regulation and in a network of transcriptional regulation of hypothalamo-hypophyseal factors including prolactin (PRL) and growth hormone (GH). In the ectotherm teleost Cyprinus carpio, Pit1 plays an important role in regulation of the adaptive response to seasonal environmental changes. Two Pit1 genes exist in carp, a tetraploid vertebrate and transcripts of both genes were detected by RT-PCR analysis. Powerful comparative analyses of the 5'-flanking regions revealed copy specific changes comprising modular functional units in the naturally evolved promoters. These include the precise replacement of four nucleotides around the transcription start site embedded in completely conserved regions extending upstream of the TATA-box, an additional transcription factor binding site in the 5'-UTR of gene-I and, instead, duplication of a 9 bp element in gene-II. Binding of nuclear factors was assessed by electro mobility shift assays using extracts from rat pituitary cells and carp pituitary. Binding was confirmed at one conserved Pit1, one conserved CREB and one consensus MTF1. Interestingly, two functional Pit1 sites and one putative MTF1 binding site are unique to the Pit1 gene-I. In situ hybridization experiments revealed that the expression of gene-I in winter carp was significantly stronger than that of gene-II. Our data suggest that the specific control elements identified in the proximal regulatory region are physiologically relevant for the function of the duplicated Pit1 genes in carp and highlight modular changes in the architecture of two Pit1 genes that evolved for at least 12 MYA in the same organism.

Genomic structure of the sea lamprey growth hormone-encoding gene

Growth hormone (GH) belongs to a family of pituitary hormones together with prolactin and somatolactin. In our previous study, GH and its cDNA were identified in the pituitary gland of the sea lamprey, Petromyzon marinus, an extant representative of the most ancient class of vertebrates, and isolated GH stimulated expression of insulin-like growth factor in the liver. The evidence suggests that GH is the ancestral hormone in the molecular evolution of the GH/PRL/SL family and that the endocrine mechanism for growth stimulation was established at an early stage in the evolution of vertebrates. To further understand the molecular evolution of the GH/PRL/SL gene family, we report the genomic structure of sea lamprey GH including its 5'-flanking region, being cloned by PCR using specific primers prepared from its cDNA. The sea lamprey GH gene consists of 13,604 bp, making it the largest of all the GH genes. The 5'-flanking region within 697 bp contains consensus sequences for a TATA box, two Pit-1/GHF-1, three TRE, and a CRE. The sea lamprey GH gene consists of five exons and four introns, the same as in mammals, birds, and teleosts such as cypriniforms and siluriforms with the exception of some teleosts such as salmoniforms, percififorms, and tetradontiforms, in which there is an additional intron in the 5th exon. The 5-exon-type gene organization might reflect the structure of the ancestral gene for the GH/PRL/SL gene family.

Feedback regulation of growth hormone synthesis and secretion in fish and the emerging concept of intrapituitary feedback loop

Growth hormone (GH) is known to play a key role in the regulation of body growth and metabolism. Similar to mammals, GH secretion in fish is under the control of hypothalamic factors. Besides, signals generated within the pituitary and/or from peripheral tissues/organs can also exert a feedback control on GH release by effects acting on both the hypothalamus and/or anterior pituitary. Among these feedback signals, the functional role of IGF is well conserved from fish to mammals. In contrast, the effects of steroids and thyroid hormones are more variable and appear to be species-specific. Recently, a novel intrapituitary feedback loop regulating GH release and GH gene expression has been identified in fish. This feedback loop has three functional components: (i) LH induction of GH release from somatotrophs, (ii) amplification of GH secretion by GH autoregulation in somatotrophs, and (iii) GH feedback inhibition of LH release from neighboring gonadotrophs. In this article, the mechanisms for feedback control of GH synthesis and secretion are reviewed and functional implications of this local feedback loop are discussed. This intrapituitary feedback loop may represent a new facet of pituitary research with potential applications in aquaculture and clinical studies.

Seasonal modulation of growth hormone mRNA and protein levels in carp pituitary: evidence for two expressed genes

Adaptation of eurythermal fish to naturally varying environmental conditions involves modulation of expressions of various factors in the hypothalamo-hypophyseal axis. Here we used three complementary approaches to assess the seasonal variation of growth hormone (GH) protein and mRNA levels in pituitary glands of acclimatized carp fish. First, a polyclonal antibody raised against an oligopeptide derived from the carp GH sequence was used for immunohistochemistry; second, oligonucleotides specific for GH transcripts were used for in situ hybridization. Specific immunodetection of GH coincides with visualization of GH mRNA in the proximal pars distalis, the specific location of somatotroph cells in carp pituitary gland. Finally, competitive RT-PCR analyses confirmed that GH expression exhibits seasonal cyclical reprogramming with higher levels in summer- than in winter-adapted fish. The expression pattern suggests an important role for GH in the molecular mechanisms underlying the acclimatization process. In parallel, amplification of sequences from the fourth intron and adjacent sites from exons IV and V demonstrates the existence of a new GH gene previously undescribed. The detection of transcripts corresponding to each gene suggests that both GH gene copies are active in the duplicated carp genome and that they are similarly affected by seasonal adaptation.

Characterization of the 5'-flanking transcriptional regulatory region of chicken growth hormone gene

A 1727-bp fragment of 5'-flanking region of chicken growth hormone (cGH) gene has been cloned and sequenced. Various lengths of the 5'-flanking region (122 to 1775 bp) was linked to a luciferase reporter gene, and its transcriptional regulation was examined by an in vitro transient transfection coupled with luciferase assay. Our results demonstrated that pituitary-specific transcription factor, Pit-1, is necessary and sufficient to confer a strong tissue-specific expression. Co-transfection with goldfish or chicken Pit-1 expression vectors significantly restored the luciferase expression in HeLa cells. Site-directed mutagenesis and mobility gel-shift assays further confirmed the position of the Pit-1 binding site at -113/-104. Moreover, a repressive thyroid hormone response element (TRE) was identified at -137/-74, and we propose that interactions between the TRE and Pit-1 sites may be required for its repressive effect.

Trout GH promoter analysis reveals a modular pattern of regulation consistent with the diversification of GH gene control and function in vertebrates

In vertebrates, growth hormone (GH) gene expression requires the pituitary-specific transcription factor Pit-1/GHF1 but is differently regulated by a variety of factors in different vertebrate species. Here, we have studied the transcriptional activity of the trout GH (tGH) promoter, which is synergistically stimulated by cAMP and glucocorticoid. Gel shift assays indicated that Pit-1 binds as a dimer to three high affinity sites in the -226/+24 tGH region, and that recombinant cAMP response element (CRE)-binding protein (CREB) binds to a CRE situated between the two distal Pit-1 sites. Deletional and mutational transfection experiments, performed in pituitary Pit-1-expressing GC cells, showed that the different Pit-1 sites play distinct roles and are obligatory elements in the mechanisms mediating cAMP and glucocorticoid responses. Remarkably, the results suggest a hierarchical modular model of regulation of the tGH promoter, according to which a critical module, triggered by Pit-1 bound to the proximal Pit-1 site, is necessary and sufficient to turn on and drive basal levels of transcription. The latter may be stimulated synergistically by two Pit-1-dependent reciprocally non-cooperative auxiliary modules, activated by cAMP and glucocorticoid, respectively. Such modularity explains, in evolutionary terms, the crucial role played by Pit-1 in transcriptional activation and the emergence of the wide variety of mechanisms regulating transcriptional levels of GH, prolactin and other Pit-1-target genes in vertebrates.

Expression of ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis) Pit-1 in Escherichia coli: its purification and immunohistochemical detection using monoclonal antibody

The pituitary-specific transcription factor Pit-1 belongs to the family of POU-domain proteins and is known to play an important role in the differentiation of pituitary cells. Here we report the complete nucleotide sequence of cDNA encoding Pit-1 from the brackish water fish, ayu (Plecoglossus altivelis). Nucleotide sequence analysis of 1910 bp of ayu Pit-1 cDNA revealed an open reading frame of 1074 bp that encodes a protein of 358 amino acids containing a POU-specific domain, POU homeodomain, and an STA (Ser/Thr-rich activation) transactivation domain. We inserted the coding region of Pit-1 cDNA, obtained by PCR, into a pET-20b(+) plasmid to produce recombinant Pit-1 in Escherichia coli BL21 (DE3) pLysS cells. Upon induction with isopropyl beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside, Pit-1 was expressed and accumulated as inclusion bodies in E. coli. The protein was then purified in one step by affinity chromatography on a nickel-nitrilotriacetic acid agarose column under denaturing conditions. This method yielded 0.7 mg of highly pure and stable protein per 200 ml of bacterial culture. A band of 40 kDa, resolved as recombinant ayu Pit-1 by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, agrees well with the molecular mass calculated from the translated cDNA sequence. The purified recombinant Pit-1 was confirmed in vitro through Western blot analysis, using its monoclonal antibody. This monoclonal antibody detected Pit-1 in the nuclei of ayu developing pituitary by immunohistochemical reaction. It serves as a good reagent for the detection of ayu Pit-1 in situ.

Gene structure and promoter function of a teleost ribosomal protein: a tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) L18 gene

We have cloned and characterized a tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) L18 ribosomal protein gene, including the complete transcribed region and 488 bp of upstream regulatory sequences. We have also isolated two L18 cDNAs from another tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) with a few conservative nucleotide differences. Our results suggest the presence of two genes in both species. Reporter constructs were tested for transient expression in CV1 cells and in microinjected zebrafish and tilapia embryos. The tilapia L18 promoter was able to drive expression of the reporter gene in all three experiments, with no apparent preference for a particular tissue. The tilapia L18 promoter is therefore likely to be a powerful tool to drive tissue-independent gene expression in fish.

Pituitary and extrapituitary growth hormone: Pit-1 dependence?

Growth hormone (GH) is primarily produced in pituitary somatotrophs. The synthesis of this hormone is thought to be dependent upon a pituitary-specific transcription factor (Pit-1). However, many extrapituitary tissues are now known to express GH genes. The extrapituitary production of GH may therefore indicate an extrapituitary distribution of the Pit-1 gene. The extrapituitary production of GH may, alternatively, indicate that GH expression occurs independently of Pit-1 in extrapituitary tissues. These possibilities are considered in this brief review.Key words: growth hormone, pituitary, pituitary transcription factor 1.

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide as a novel hypophysiotropic factor in fish

Pituitary adenylate cyclase activating polypeptide (PACAP) is a novel member of the secretin-glucagon peptide family. In mammals, this peptide has been located in a wide range of tissues and is involved in a variety of biological functions. In lower vertebrates, especially fish, increasing evidence suggests that PACAP may function as a hypophysiotropic factor regulating pituitary hormone secretion. PACAP has been identified in the brain-pituitary axis of representative fish species. The molecular structure of fish PACAP is highly homologous to mammalian PACAP. The prepro-PACAP in fish, however, is distinct from that of mammals as it also contains the sequence of fish GHRH. In teleosts, the anterior pituitary is under direct innervation of the hypothalamus and PACAP nerve fibers have been identified in the pars distalis. Using the goldfish as a fish model, mRNA transcripts of PACAP receptors, namely the PAC1 and VPAC1 receptors, have been identified in the pituitary as well as in various brain areas. Consistent with the pituitary expression of PACAP receptors, PACAP analogs are effective in stimulating growth hormone (GH) and gonadotropin (GTH)-II secretion in the goldfish both in vivo and in vitro. The GH-releasing action of PACAP is mediated via pituitary PAC1 receptors coupled to the adenylate cyclase-cAMP-protein kinase A and phospholipase C-IP3-protein kinase C pathways. Subsequent stimulation of Ca2+ entry through voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels followed by activation of Ca2+-calmodulin protein kinase II is likely the downstream mechanism mediating PACAP-stimulated GH release in goldfish. Although the PACAP receptor subtype(s) and the associated post-receptor signaling events responsible for PACAP-stimulated GTH-II release have not been characterized in goldfish, these findings support the hypothesis that PACAP is produced in the hypothalamus and delivered to the anterior pituitary to regulate GH and GTH-II release in fish.Key words: PACAP, VIP, PAC1 receptor, VPAC1 receptor, VPAC2 receptor, growth hormone, gonadotropin-II, cAMP, protein kinase A, protein kinase C, calcium, pituitary cells, goldfish, and teleost.