Antagonistic interactions of an arsenic-containing mixture in a multiple organ carcinogenicity bioassay

Nrf2 protects against As(III)-induced damage in mouse liver and bladder

Arsenic compounds are classified as toxicants and human carcinogens. Environmental exposure to arsenic imposes a big health issue worldwide. Arsenic elicits its toxic efforts through many mechanisms, including generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). Nrf2 is the primary transcription factor that controls expression of a main cellular antioxidant response, which is required for neutralizing ROS and thus defending cells from exogenous insults. Previously, we demonstrated a protective role of Nrf2 against arsenic-induced toxicity using a cell culture model. In this report, we present evidence that Nrf2 protects against liver and bladder injury in response to six weeks of arsenic exposure in a mouse model. Nrf2(-/-) mice displayed more severe pathological changes in the liver and bladder, compared to Nrf2(+/+) mice. Furthermore, Nrf2(-/-) mice were more sensitive to arsenic-induced DNA hypomethylation, oxidative DNA damage, and apoptotic cell death. These results indicate a protective role of Nrf2 against arsenic toxicity in vivo. Hence, this work demonstrates the feasibility of using dietary compounds that target activation of the Nrf2 signaling pathway to alleviate arsenic-induced damage.

Activation of Nrf2 by arsenite and monomethylarsonous acid is independent of Keap1-C151: enhanced Keap1-Cul3 interaction

Drinking water contaminated with arsenic, a human carcinogen, is a worldwide health issue. An understanding of cellular signaling events in response to arsenic exposure and rational designing of strategies to reduce arsenic damages by modulating signaling events are important to fight against arsenic-induced diseases. Previously, we reported that activation of the Nrf2-mediated cellular defense pathway confers protection against toxic effects induced by sodium arsenite [As(III)] or monomethylarsonous acid [MMA(III)]. Paradoxically, arsenic has been reported to induce the Nrf2-dependent signaling pathway. Here, we report the unique mechanism of Nrf2 induction by arsenic. Similar to tert-butylhydroquinone (tBHQ) or sulforaphane (SF), arsenic induced the Nrf2-dependent response through enhancing Nrf2 protein levels by inhibiting Nrf2 ubiquitination and degradation. However, the detailed action of arsenic in Nrf2 induction is different from that of tBHQ or SF. Arsenic markedly enhanced the interaction between Keap1 and Cul3, subunits of the E3 ubiquitin ligase for Nrf2, which led to impaired dynamic assembly/disassembly of the E3 ubiquitin ligase and thus decreased its ligase activity. Furthermore, induction of Nrf2 by arsenic is independent of the previously identified C151 residue in Keap1 that is required for Nrf2 activation by tBHQ or SF. Distinct mechanisms of Nrf2 activation by seemingly harmful and beneficial reagents provide a molecular basis to design Nrf2-activating agents for therapeutic intervention.

Antagonistic combinations of occupational carcinogens

Several epidemiological and experimental studies demonstrate that combinations of carcinogens may interact in a synergistic way. This has prompted speculations that modulating interactions of individual chemical carcinogens are synergistic as a rule. However, various combinations of chemical carcinogens have been described which interact not even additively but in an antagonistic way. The aim of this review is to collect information of antagonistic interactions of occupational carcinogens obtained by epidemiologic and animal studies. In addition, appropriate in vitro studies with the genotoxic endpoints DNA-adducts and micronuclei are included. The toxicological mechanisms of antagonistic interactions, although speculative in some cases, are discussed.

Liver regeneration: a critical toxicodynamic response in predictive toxicology

The objective of the present review is to discuss the importance tissue repair in the mixture risk assessment. Studies have revealed the existence of two stages of toxicity: an inflictive stage (stage I) and progressive or regressive stage (stage II). While much is known about mechanisms by which injury is inflicted (stage I), very little is known about the mechanisms that lead to progression or regression of injury. A wide variety of additional experimental evidence suggests that tissue repair impacts decisively on the final toxic outcome and any modulation in this response has profound impact in the final outcome of toxicity. We designed the present research to investigate the importance of tissue repair in the final acute hepatotoxic outcome upon exposures to mixture of toxicants comprising thioacetamide (TA), allyl alcohol (AA), chloroform (CHCl(3)) and trichloroethylene (TCE). Dose response studies with individual compounds, binary mixtures (BM), ternary (TM) and quaternary mixtures (QM) have been conducted. Results of CHCl(3) + AA BM [Anand, S.S., Murthy, S.N., Vishal, V.S., Mumtaz, M.M., Mehendale, H.M., 2003. Tissue repair plays pivotal role in final outcome of supra-additive liver injury after chloroform and allyl alcohol binary mixture. Food Chem. Toxicol. 41, 1123] and CHCl(3) + AA + TA +TCE QM [Soni, M.G., Ramaiah, S.K., Mumtaz, M.M., Clewell, H., Mehendale, H.M., 1999. Toxicant-inflicted injury and stimulated tissue repair are opposing toxicodynamic forces in predictive toxicology. Regul. Phramcol. Toxicol. 19, 165], and two representative individual compounds (TA and AA) [Mangipudy, R.S., Chanda, S., Mehendale, H.M., 1995a. Tissue repair response as a function of dose in thioacetamide hepatotoxicity. Environ. Health Perspect. 103, 260; Soni, M.G., Ramaiah, S.K., Mumtaz, M.M., Clewell, H., Mehendale, H.M., 1999. Toxicant-inflicted injury and stimulated tissue repair are opposing toxicodynamic forces in predictive toxicology. Regul. Phramcol. Toxicol. 19, 165] are described in this review. In addition, modulation of tissue repair in the outcome of hepatotoxicity and its implications in the risk assessment have been discussed. Male Sprague-Dawley (S-D) rats (250-300g) received a single i.p. injection of individual toxicants as well as mixtures. Liver injury was assessed by plasma alanine amino transferase (ALT) and histopathology. Tissue regeneration response was measured by [(3)H]-thymidine ((3)H-T) incorporation into hepatocellular nuclear DNA and PCNA. Only ALT and (3)H-T data have been presented in this review for the sake of simplicity. Studies with individual hepatotoxicants showed a dose-related increase in injury as well as tissue repair up to a threshold dose. Beyond this threshold, tissue repair was inhibited, and liver injury progressed leading to mortality. Since the highest dose of individual compounds resulted in mortality, this dose was not employed for mixture studies. While CHCl(3) + AA BM caused supra-additive liver injury, QM caused additive liver injury. Due to the prompt and robust compensatory tissue repair, all the rats exposed to BM survived. With QM, the rats receiving the highest dose combination experienced some mortality consequent to the progression of liver injury attendant to suppressed tissue repair. These findings suggest that liver tissue repair, the opposing biological response that restores tissue lost to injury, may play a critical and determining role in the outcome of liver injury regardless of the number of toxicants in the mixture or the mechanism of initiation of injury. These data suggest that inclusion of this response in risk assessment might help in fine-tuning the prediction of toxic outcomes.

Synergistic DNA damage by oxidative stress (induced by H2O2) and nongenotoxic environmental chemicals in human fibroblasts

Genotoxic combination effects of oxidative stress (induced by H2O2) and eight nongenotoxic environmental chemicals (4-chloroaniline, 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, lindane, 2,4-dichloroacetic acid (2,4-D), m-xylene, glyphosate, nitrilotriacetic acid and n-hexanol) were determined in human fibroblasts. Genotoxicity was measured quantitatively by the single cell gel electrophoresis assay. The nongenotoxic chemicals were used in non cytotoxic concentrations. H2O2 was used in concentrations producing low (50 microM) and no cytotoxicity (40 microM). All environmental chemicals acted in a synergistic way with H2O2 except DMSO which effectively inhibited H2O(2)-induced DNA damage. The most effective enhancers were 4-chloroaniline, 2,3,4,6-tetrachlorophenol, m-xylene, and n-hexanol. Synergistic effects of hexanol/H2O2 were still evident at a concentration of 0.09 noec (no observed effect concentration). In contrast to synergistic DNA damage in the cell antagonism was found measuring DNA breakage in isolated PM2 DNA. From the results we concluded that synergisms between H2O2 and nongenotoxic chemicals may be a general phenomenon which is not observed on the level of isolated DNA.

Pharmacokinetics, metabolism, and carcinogenicity of arsenic

The carcinogenicity of arsenic in humans has been unambiguously demonstrated in a variety of epidemiological studies encompassing geographically diverse study populations and multiple exposure scenarios. Despite the abundance of human data, our knowledge of the mechanism(s) responsible for the carcinogenic effects of arsenic remains incomplete. A deeper understanding of these mechanisms is highly dependent on the development of appropriate experimental models, both in vitro and in vivo, for future mechanistic investigations. Suitable in vitro models would facilitate further investigation of the critical chemical species (arsenate/arsenite/MMA/DMA) involved in the carcinogenic process, as well as the evaluation of the generation and role of ROS. Mechanisms underlying the clastogenic effects of arsenic, its role in modulating DNA methylation, and the phenomenon of inducible tolerance could all be more completely investigated using in vitro models. The mechanisms involved in arsenic's inhibition of ubiquitin-mediated proteolysis demand further attention, particularly with respect to its effects on cell proliferation and DNA repair. Exploration of the mechanisms responsible for the protective or anticarcinogenic effects of arsenic could also enhance our understanding of the cellular and molecular interactions that influence its carcinogenicity. In addition, appropriate in vivo models must be developed that consider the action of arsenic as a promoter and/or progressor. In vivo models that allow further investigation of the comutagenic effects of arsenic are also especially necessary. Such models may employ initiation-promotion-progression bioassays or transgenic animals. Both in vitro and in vivo models have the potential to greatly enhance our current understanding of the cellular and molecular interactions of arsenic and its metabolites in target tissues. However, refinement of our knowledge of the mechanistic aspects of arsenic carcinogenicity is not alone sufficient; an understanding of the pharmacokinetics and target tissue doses of the critical chemical species is essential. Additionally, a more thorough characterization of species differences in the tissue kinetics of arsenic and its methylated metabolites would facilitate the development of more accurate and relevant PBPK models. Improved models could be used to further investigate the existence of a methylation threshold for arsenic and its relevance to arsenic carcinogenicity in humans. The significance of alterations in relative tissue concentrations of SAM and SAH deserves further attention, particularly with respect to their role in modulating methyltransferases involved in arsenic metabolism and DNA methylation. The importance of genetic polymorphisms and nutrition in influencing methyltransferase activities must not be overlooked. In vivo models are necessary to evaluate these factors; transgenic or knockout models would be particularly useful in the investigation of methylation polymorphisms. Further evaluation of methylation polymorphisms in human populations is also warranted. Other in vivo models incorporating dietary manipulation could provide valuable insight into the role of nutrition in the carcinogenicity of arsenic. With more complete knowledge of the pharmacokinetics of arsenic metabolism and the mechanisms associated with its carcinogenic effects, development of more reliable risk assessment strategies are possible. Integration of data, both pharmacokinetic and mechanistic in nature, will lead to more accurate descriptions of the interactions that occur between the active chemical species and cellular constituents which lead to the development of cancer. This knowledge, in turn, will facilitate the development of more accurate and reliable risk assessment strategies for arsenic.