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Park SJ, Choi JW. Brain energy metabolism and multiple sclerosis: progress and prospects. Arch Pharm Res 2020; 43:1017-1030. [PMID: 33119885 DOI: 10.1007/s12272-020-01278-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disease accompanied with nerve pain and paralysis. Although various pathogenic causes of MS have been suggested, including genetic and environmental factors, how MS occurs remains unclear. Moreover, MS should be diagnosed based on clinical experiences because of no disease-specific biomarker and currently available treatments for MS just can reduce relapsing frequency or severity with little effects on disease disability. Therefore, more efforts are required to identify pathophysiology of MS and diagnosis markers. Recent evidence indicates another aspect of MS pathogenesis, energy failure in the central nervous system (CNS). For instance, inflammation that is a characteristic MS symptom and occurs frequently in the CNS of MS patients can result into energy failure in mitochondria and cytosol. Indeed, metabolomics studies for MS have reported energy failure in oxidative phosphorylation and alteration of aerobic glycolysis. Therefore, studies on the metabolism in the CNS may provide another insight for understanding complexity of MS and pathogenesis, which would facilitate the discovery of promising strategies for developing therapeutics to treat MS. This review will provide an overview on recent progress of metabolomic studies for MS, with a focus on the fluctuation of energy metabolism in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sung Jean Park
- College of Pharmacy and Gachon Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoero, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, 21936, Korea.
| | - Ji Woong Choi
- College of Pharmacy and Gachon Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Gachon University, 191 Hambakmoero, Yeonsu-gu, Incheon, 21936, Korea.
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Pilipović I, Stojić-Vukanić Z, Prijić I, Jasnić N, Leposavić G. Propranolol diminished severity of rat EAE by enhancing immunoregulatory/protective properties of spinal cord microglia. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 134:104665. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2019] [Revised: 10/08/2019] [Accepted: 10/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
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Morita M, Ikeshima-Kataoka H, Kreft M, Vardjan N, Zorec R, Noda M. Metabolic Plasticity of Astrocytes and Aging of the Brain. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20040941. [PMID: 30795555 PMCID: PMC6413111 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20040941] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2019] [Revised: 02/17/2019] [Accepted: 02/18/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
As part of the blood-brain-barrier, astrocytes are ideally positioned between cerebral vasculature and neuronal synapses to mediate nutrient uptake from the systemic circulation. In addition, astrocytes have a robust enzymatic capacity of glycolysis, glycogenesis and lipid metabolism, managing nutrient support in the brain parenchyma for neuronal consumption. Here, we review the plasticity of astrocyte energy metabolism under physiologic and pathologic conditions, highlighting age-dependent brain dysfunctions. In astrocytes, glycolysis and glycogenesis are regulated by noradrenaline and insulin, respectively, while mitochondrial ATP production and fatty acid oxidation are influenced by the thyroid hormone. These regulations are essential for maintaining normal brain activities, and impairments of these processes may lead to neurodegeneration and cognitive decline. Metabolic plasticity is also associated with (re)activation of astrocytes, a process associated with pathologic events. It is likely that the recently described neurodegenerative and neuroprotective subpopulations of reactive astrocytes metabolize distinct energy substrates, and that this preference is supposed to explain some of their impacts on pathologic processes. Importantly, physiologic and pathologic properties of astrocytic metabolic plasticity bear translational potential in defining new potential diagnostic biomarkers and novel therapeutic targets to mitigate neurodegeneration and age-related brain dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuhiro Morita
- Department of Biology, Graduate School of Sciences, Kobe University, 657-8501 Kobe, Japan.
| | - Hiroko Ikeshima-Kataoka
- Faculty of Science and Engineering, Waseda University, 3-4-1 Okubo, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 169-8555, Japan.
| | - Marko Kreft
- Laboratory of Cell Engineering, Celica Biomedical, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Department of Biology, Biotechnical Faculty University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Nina Vardjan
- Laboratory of Cell Engineering, Celica Biomedical, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Robert Zorec
- Laboratory of Cell Engineering, Celica Biomedical, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia.
| | - Mami Noda
- Laboratory of Pathophysiology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Kyushu University, Fukuoka 812-8582, Japan.
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Fingolimod Suppresses the Proinflammatory Status of Interferon-γ-Activated Cultured Rat Astrocytes. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 56:5971-5986. [PMID: 30701416 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-1481-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Astroglia, the primary homeostatic cells of the central nervous system, play an important role in neuroinflammation. They act as facultative immunocompetent antigen-presenting cells (APCs), expressing major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class II antigens upon activation with interferon (IFN)-γ and possibly other proinflammatory cytokines that are upregulated in disease states, including multiple sclerosis (MS). We characterized the anti-inflammatory effects of fingolimod (FTY720), an established drug for MS, and its phosphorylated metabolite (FTY720-P) in IFN-γ-activated cultured rat astrocytes. The expression of MHC class II compartments, β2 adrenergic receptor (ADR-β2), and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain enhancer of activated B cells subunit p65 (NF-κB p65) was quantified in immunofluorescence images acquired by laser scanning confocal microscopy. In addition, MHC class II-enriched endocytotic vesicles were labeled by fluorescent dextran and their mobility analyzed in astrocytes subjected to different treatments. FTY720 and FTY720-P treatment significantly reduced the number of IFN-γ-induced MHC class II compartments and substantially increased ADR-β2 expression, which is otherwise small or absent in astrocytes in MS. These effects could be partially attributed to the observed decrease in NF-κB p65 expression, because the NF-κB signaling cascade is activated in inflammatory processes. We also found attenuated trafficking and secretion from dextran-labeled endo-/lysosomes that may hinder efficient delivery of MHC class II molecules to the plasma membrane. Our data suggest that FTY720 and FTY720-P at submicromolar concentrations mediate anti-inflammatory effects on astrocytes by suppressing their action as APCs, which may further downregulate the inflammatory process in the brain, constituting the therapeutic effect of fingolimod in MS.
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Targeting phosphocreatine metabolism in relapsing-remitting multiple sclerosis: evaluation with brain MRI, 1H and 31P MRS, and clinical and cognitive testing. J Neurol 2018; 265:2614-2624. [PMID: 30187159 DOI: 10.1007/s00415-018-9039-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2018] [Revised: 08/27/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND/OBJECTIVES Fluoxetine and prucalopride might change phosphocreatine (PCr) levels via the cAMP-PKA pathway, an interesting target in the neurodegenerative mechanisms of MS. METHODS We conducted a two-center double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial including 48 relapsing-remitting MS patients. Patients were randomized to receive placebo (n = 13), fluoxetine (n = 15), or prucalopride (n = 14) for 6 weeks. Proton (1H) and phosphorus (31P) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) as well as volumetric and perfusion MR imaging were performed at weeks 0, 2, and 6. Clinical and cognitive testing were evaluated at weeks 0 and 6. RESULTS No significant changes were observed for both 31P and 1H MRS indices. We found a significant effect on white matter volume and a trend towards an increase in grey matter and whole brain volume in the fluoxetine group at week 2; however, these effects were not sustained at week 6 for white matter and whole brain volume. Fluoxetine and prucalopride showed a positive effect on 9-HPT, depression, and fatigue scores. CONCLUSION Both fluoxetine and prucalopride had a symptomatic effect on upper limb function, fatigue, and depression, but this should be interpreted with caution. No effect of treatment was found on 31P and 1H MRS parameters, suggesting that these molecules do not influence the PCr metabolism.
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Cardiovascular Autonomic Dysfunction: Link Between Multiple Sclerosis Osteoporosis and Neurodegeneration. Neuromolecular Med 2018; 20:37-53. [DOI: 10.1007/s12017-018-8481-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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Hertz L, Chen Y. Glycogenolysis, an Astrocyte-Specific Reaction, is Essential for Both Astrocytic and Neuronal Activities Involved in Learning. Neuroscience 2017; 370:27-36. [PMID: 28668486 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.06.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Revised: 06/10/2017] [Accepted: 06/19/2017] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
In brain glycogen, formed from glucose, is degraded (glycogenolysis) in astrocytes but not in neurons. Although most of the degradation follows the same pathway as glucose, its breakdown product, l-lactate, is released from astrocytes in larger amounts than glucose when glycogenolysis is activated by noradrenaline. However, this is not the case when glycogenolysis is activated by high potassium ion (K+) concentrations - possibly because noradrenaline in contrast to high K+ stimulates glycogenolysis by an increase not only in free cytosolic Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i) but also in cyclic AMP (c-AMP), which may increase the expression of the monocarboxylate transporter through which it is released. Several transmitters activate glycogenolysis in astrocytes and do so at different time points after training. This stimulation is essential for memory consolidation because glycogenolysis is necessary for uptake of K+ and stimulates formation of glutamate from glucose, and therefore is needed both for removal of increased extracellular K+ following neuronal excitation (which initially occurs into astrocytes) and for formation of transmitter glutamate and GABA. In addition the released l-lactate has effects on neurons which are essential for learning and for learning-related long-term potentiation (LTP), including induction of the neuronal gene Arc/Arg3.1 and activation of gene cascades mediated by CREB and cofilin. Inhibition of glycogenolysis blocks learning, LTP and all related molecular events, but all changes can be reversed by injection of l-lactate. The effect of extracellular l-lactate is due to both astrocyte-mediated signaling which activates noradrenergic activity on all brain cells and to a minor uptake, possibly into dendritic spines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Hertz
- Laboratory of Metabolic Brain Diseases, Institute of Metabolic Disease Research and Drug Development, China Medical University, Shenyang, PR China
| | - Ye Chen
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation, Bethesda, MD 20817, USA.
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Astrocytic Pathological Calcium Homeostasis and Impaired Vesicle Trafficking in Neurodegeneration. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18020358. [PMID: 28208745 PMCID: PMC5343893 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18020358] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2016] [Revised: 01/30/2017] [Accepted: 01/31/2017] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Although the central nervous system (CNS) consists of highly heterogeneous populations of neurones and glial cells, clustered into diverse anatomical regions with specific functions, there are some conditions, including alertness, awareness and attention that require simultaneous, coordinated and spatially homogeneous activity within a large area of the brain. During such events, the brain, representing only about two percent of body mass, but consuming one fifth of body glucose at rest, needs additional energy to be produced. How simultaneous energy procurement in a relatively extended area of the brain takes place is poorly understood. This mechanism is likely to be impaired in neurodegeneration, for example in Alzheimer’s disease, the hallmark of which is brain hypometabolism. Astrocytes, the main neural cell type producing and storing glycogen, a form of energy in the brain, also hold the key to metabolic and homeostatic support in the central nervous system and are impaired in neurodegeneration, contributing to the slow decline of excitation-energy coupling in the brain. Many mechanisms are affected, including cell-to-cell signalling. An important question is how changes in cellular signalling, a process taking place in a rather short time domain, contribute to the neurodegeneration that develops over decades. In this review we focus initially on the slow dynamics of Alzheimer’s disease, and on the activity of locus coeruleus, a brainstem nucleus involved in arousal. Subsequently, we overview much faster processes of vesicle traffic and cytosolic calcium dynamics, both of which shape the signalling landscape of astrocyte-neurone communication in health and neurodegeneration.
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Impaired Neurovisceral Integration of Cardiovascular Modulation Contributes to Multiple Sclerosis Morbidities. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:362-374. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-015-9599-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2015] [Accepted: 12/01/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Scanzano A, Cosentino M. Adrenergic regulation of innate immunity: a review. Front Pharmacol 2015; 6:171. [PMID: 26321956 PMCID: PMC4534859 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2015.00171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 219] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/21/2015] [Accepted: 07/31/2015] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The sympathetic nervous system has a major role in the brain-immune cross-talk, but few information exist on the sympathoadrenergic regulation of innate immune system. The aim of this review is to summarize available knowledge regarding the sympathetic modulation of the innate immune response, providing a rational background for the possible repurposing of adrenergic drugs as immunomodulating agents. The cells of immune system express adrenoceptors (AR), which represent the target for noradrenaline and adrenaline. In human neutrophils, adrenaline and noradrenaline inhibit migration, CD11b/CD18 expression, and oxidative metabolism, possibly through β-AR, although the role of α1- and α2-AR requires further investigation. Natural Killer express β-AR, which are usually inhibitory. Monocytes express β-AR and their activation is usually antiinflammatory. On murine Dentritic cells (DC), β-AR mediate sympathetic influence on DC-T cells interactions. In human DC β2-AR may affect Th1/2 differentiation of CD4+ T cells. In microglia and in astrocytes, β2-AR dysregulation may contribute to neuroinflammation in autoimmune and neurodegenerative disease. In conclusion, extensive evidence supports a critical role for adrenergic mechanisms in the regulation of innate immunity, in peripheral tissues as well as in the CNS. Sympathoadrenergic pathways in the innate immune system may represent novel antiinflammatory and immunomodulating targets with significant therapeutic potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angela Scanzano
- Center for Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria Varese, Italy
| | - Marco Cosentino
- Center for Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria Varese, Italy
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Vardjan N, Verkhratsky A, Zorec R. Pathologic Potential of Astrocytic Vesicle Traffic: New Targets to Treat Neurologic Diseases? Cell Transplant 2015; 24:599-612. [DOI: 10.3727/096368915x687750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Vesicles are small intracellular organelles that are fundamental for constitutive housekeeping of the plasmalemma, intercellular transport, and cell-to-cell communications. In astroglial cells, traffic of vesicles is associated with cell morphology, which determines the signaling potential and metabolic support for neighboring cells, including when these cells are considered to be used for cell transplantations or for regulating neurogenesis. Moreover, vesicles are used in astrocytes for the release of vesicle-laden chemical messengers. Here we review the properties of membrane-bound vesicles that store gliotransmitters, endolysosomes that are involved in the traffic of plasma membrane receptors, and membrane transporters. These vesicles are all linked to pathological states, including amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, neuroinflammation, trauma, edema, and states in which astrocytes contribute to developmental disorders. In multiple sclerosis, for example, fingolimod, a recently introduced drug, apparently affects vesicle traffic and gliotransmitter release from astrocytes, indicating that this process may well be used as a new pathophysiologic target for the development of new therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Vardjan
- Celica Biomedical, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Alexei Verkhratsky
- Celica Biomedical, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Achucarro Center for Neuroscience, Ikerbasque, Basque Foundation for Science, Bilbao, Spain
- Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Robert Zorec
- Celica Biomedical, Ljubljana, Slovenia
- Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Hertz L, Xu J, Chen Y, Gibbs ME, Du T, Hertz L, Xu J, Chen Y, Gibbs ME, Du T. Antagonists of the Vasopressin V1 Receptor and of the β(1)-Adrenoceptor Inhibit Cytotoxic Brain Edema in Stroke by Effects on Astrocytes - but the Mechanisms Differ. Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 12:308-23. [PMID: 25342939 PMCID: PMC4207071 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x12666140828222723] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2014] [Revised: 06/13/2014] [Accepted: 06/20/2014] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Brain edema is a serious complication in ischemic stroke because even relatively small changes in brain volume can compromise cerebral blood flow or result in compression of vital brain structures on account of the fixed volume of the rigid skull. Literature data indicate that administration of either antagonists of the V1 vasopressin (AVP) receptor or the β1-adrenergic receptor are able to reduce edema or infarct size when administered after the onset of ischemia, a key advantage for possible clinical use. The present review discusses possible mechanisms, focusing on the role of NKCC1, an astrocytic cotransporter of Na(+), K(+), 2Cl(-) and water and its activation by highly increased extracellular K(+) concentrations in the development of cytotoxic cell swelling. However, it also mentions that due to a 3/2 ratio between Na(+) release and K(+) uptake by the Na(+),K(+)-ATPase driving NKCC1 brain extracellular fluid can become hypertonic, which may facilitate water entry across the blood-brain barrier, essential for development of edema. It shows that brain edema does not develop until during reperfusion, which can be explained by lack of metabolic energy during ischemia. V1 antagonists are likely to protect against cytotoxic edema formation by inhibiting AVP enhancement of NKCC1-mediated uptake of ions and water, whereas β1-adrenergic antagonists prevent edema formation because β1-adrenergic stimulation alone is responsible for stimulation of the Na(+),K(+)-ATPase driving NKCC1, first and foremost due to decrease in extracellular Ca(2+) concentration. Inhibition of NKCC1 also has adverse effects, e.g. on memory and the treatment should probably be of shortest possible duration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leif Hertz
- Laboratory of Brain Metabolic Diseases, Institute of Metabolic Disease Research and Drug Development, China Medical University, P.R. China
| | - Junnan Xu
- Laboratory of Brain Metabolic Diseases, Institute of Metabolic Disease Research and Drug Development, China Medical University, P.R. China
| | - Ye Chen
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation 6720A Rockledge Dr #100, Bethesda MD 20817, USA
| | - Marie E Gibbs
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Ting Du
- Laboratory of Brain Metabolic Diseases, Institute of Metabolic Disease Research and Drug Development, China Medical University, P.R. China
| | - Leif Hertz
- Laboratory of Brain Metabolic Diseases, Institute of Metabolic Disease Research and Drug Development, China Medical University, P.R. China
| | - Junnan Xu
- Laboratory of Brain Metabolic Diseases, Institute of Metabolic Disease Research and Drug Development, China Medical University, P.R. China
| | - Ye Chen
- Henry M. Jackson Foundation 6720A Rockledge Dr #100, Bethesda MD 20817, USA
| | - Marie E Gibbs
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University Parkville, VIC, Australia
| | - Ting Du
- Laboratory of Brain Metabolic Diseases, Institute of Metabolic Disease Research and Drug Development, China Medical University, P.R. China
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Braun D, Madrigal JLM, Feinstein DL. Noradrenergic regulation of glial activation: molecular mechanisms and therapeutic implications. Curr Neuropharmacol 2014; 12:342-52. [PMID: 25342942 PMCID: PMC4207074 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x12666140828220938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/03/2014] [Revised: 07/12/2014] [Accepted: 07/16/2014] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It has been known for many years that the endogenous neurotransmitter noradrenaline (NA) exerts anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective effects both in vitro and in vivo. In many cases the site of action of NA are beta-adrenergic receptors (βARs), causing an increase in intracellular levels of cAMP which initiates a broad cascade of events including suppression of inflammatory transcription factor activities, alterations in nuclear localization of proteins, and induction of patterns of gene expression mediated through activity of the CREB transcription factor. These changes lead not only to reduced inflammatory events, but also contribute to neuroprotective actions of NA by increasing expression of neurotrophic substances including BDNF, GDNF, and NGF. These properties have prompted studies to determine if treatments with drugs to raise CNS NA levels could provide benefit in various neurological conditions and diseases having an inflammatory component. Moreover, increasing evidence shows that disruptions in endogenous NA levels occurs in several diseases and conditions including Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Down's syndrome, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), and multiple sclerosis (MS), suggesting that damage to NA producing neurons is a common factor that contributes to the initiation or progression of neuropathology. Methods to increase NA levels, or to reduce damage to noradrenergic neurons, therefore represent potential preventative as well as therapeutic approaches to disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Braun
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago IL, USA, 60612
| | - Jose L M Madrigal
- Departamento de Farmacología, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, Spain
| | - Douglas L Feinstein
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago IL, USA, 60612 ; Jesse Brown VA Medical Center, Chicago IL, USA, 60612
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Minagar A. Multiple Sclerosis: An Overview of Clinical Features, Pathophysiology, Neuroimaging, and Treatment Options. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4199/c00116ed1v01y201408isp055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
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Vardjan N, Kreft M, Zorec R. Dynamics of β-adrenergic/cAMP signaling and morphological changes in cultured astrocytes. Glia 2014; 62:566-79. [PMID: 24464905 DOI: 10.1002/glia.22626] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2013] [Revised: 11/05/2013] [Accepted: 12/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The morphology of astrocytes, likely regulated by cAMP, determines the structural association between astrocytes and the synapse, consequently modulating synaptic function. β-Adrenergic receptors (β-AR), which increase cytosolic cAMP concentration ([cAMP]i ), may affect cell morphology. However, the real-time dynamics of β-AR-mediated cAMP signaling in single live astrocytes and its effect on cell morphology have not been studied. We used the fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET)-based cAMP biosensor Epac1-camps to study time-dependent changes in [cAMP]i ; morphological changes in primary rat astrocytes were monitored by real-time confocal microscopy. Stimulation of β-AR by adrenaline, noradrenaline, and isoprenaline, a specific agonist of β-AR, rapidly increased [cAMP]i (∼15 s). The FRET signal response, mediated via β-AR, was faster than in the presence of forskolin (twofold) and dibutyryl-cAMP (>35-fold), which directly activate adenylyl cyclase and Epac1-camps, respectively, likely due to slow entry of these agents into the cytosol. Oscillations in [cAMP]i have not been recorded, indicating that cAMP-dependent processes operate in a slow time domain. Most Epac1-camps expressing astrocytes revealed a morphological change upon β-AR activation and attained a stellate morphology within 1 h. The morphological changes exhibited a bell-shaped dependency on [cAMP]i . The 5-10% decrease in cell cross-sectional area and the 30-50% increase in cell perimeter are likely due to withdrawal of the cytoplasm to the perinuclear region and the appearance of protrusions on the surface of astrocytes. Because astrocyte processes ensheath neurons, β-AR/cAMP-mediated morphological changes can modify the geometry of the extracellular space, affecting synaptic, neuronal, and astrocyte functions in health and disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nina Vardjan
- Celica Biomedical Center, Tehnološki Park 24, Ljubljana, Slovenia; Laboratory of Neuroendocrinology-Molecular Cell Physiology, Institute of Pathophysiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Ljubljana, Zaloška 4, Ljubljana, Slovenia
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Hostenbach S, Cambron M, D'haeseleer M, Kooijman R, De Keyser J. Astrocyte loss and astrogliosis in neuroinflammatory disorders. Neurosci Lett 2013; 565:39-41. [PMID: 24128880 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2013] [Revised: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 10/03/2013] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Neuroinflammation can lead to either damage of astrocytes or astrogliosis. Astrocyte loss may be caused by cytotoxic T cells as seen in Rasmussen encephalitis, auto-antibodies such as in neuromyelitis optica (aquaporin-4 antibodies), or cytokines such as TNF-α in major depressive disorder. Interleukins-1 and -6 appear to be important molecular mediators of astrogliosis. Chronic focal lesions in multiple sclerosis are characterized by a very dense astrogliosis. Other mechanisms, such as astrocytic β2 adrenergic receptor deficiency, upregulation of endothelin-1 and tissue transglutaminase, may contribute to astroglial scarring in multiple sclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Hostenbach
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurosciences, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussel, Belgium
| | - Melissa Cambron
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurosciences, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussel, Belgium
| | - Miguel D'haeseleer
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurosciences, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussel, Belgium
| | - Ron Kooijman
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Drug Analysis and Drug Information, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussel, Belgium
| | - Jacques De Keyser
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurosciences, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB), Brussel, Belgium; Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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Fan H. β-Arrestins 1 and 2 are critical regulators of inflammation. Innate Immun 2013; 20:451-60. [PMID: 24029143 DOI: 10.1177/1753425913501098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2013] [Accepted: 07/19/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
β-Arrestins 1 and 2 couple to seven trans-membrane receptors and regulate G protein-dependent signaling, receptor endocytosis and ubiquitylation. Recent studies have uncovered several unanticipated functions of β-arrestins, suggesting that the role of β-arrestins in cell signaling is much broader than originally thought. It is now recognized that β-arrestins can transduce receptor signaling independent of G proteins. The expression of β-arrestins is differentially regulated in immune cells and tissues in response to specific inflammatory stimuli, and β-arrestins are critical regulators of the inflammatory response. This review will focus on β-arrestins in immune cells and the impact of altered expression on the pathogenesis of specific inflammatory diseases. Understanding the role of β-arrestins in inflammation may lead to new strategies to treat inflammatory diseases, such as sepsis, rheumatoid arthritis, asthma, multiple sclerosis, inflammatory bowel disease and atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hongkuan Fan
- Department of Neuroscience, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC, USA
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19
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Jensen CJ, Massie A, De Keyser J. Immune players in the CNS: the astrocyte. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2013; 8:824-39. [PMID: 23821340 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-013-9480-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2012] [Accepted: 05/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
In the finely balanced environment of the central nervous system astrocytes, the most numerous cell type, play a role in regulating almost every physiological system. First found to regulate extracellular ions and pH, they have since been shown to regulate neurotransmitter levels, cerebral blood flow and energy metabolism. There is also growing evidence for an essential role of astrocytes in central immunity, which is the topic of this review. In the healthy state, the central nervous system is potently anti-inflammatory but under threat astrocytes readily respond to pathogens and to both sterile and pathogen-induced cell damage. In response, astrocytes take on some of the roles of immune cells, releasing cyto- and chemokines to influence effector cells, modulating the blood-brain barrier and forming glial scars. To date, much of the data supporting a role for astrocytes in immunity have been obtained from in vitro systems; however data from experimental models and clinical samples support the suggestion that astrocytes perform similar roles in more complex environments. This review will discuss some aspects of the role of astrocytes in central nervous system immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cathy J Jensen
- Department of Neurology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Center for Neurosciences, Vrije Universiteit Brussel-VUB, Brussels, Belgium.
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20
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β-Arrestins in the Central Nervous System. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2013; 118:267-95. [DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-394440-5.00011-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
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21
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Sternberg Z. Autonomic dysfunction: A unifying multiple sclerosis theory, linking chronic cerebrospinal venous insufficiency, vitamin D3, and Epstein-Barr virus. Autoimmun Rev 2012; 12:250-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.autrev.2012.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2012] [Accepted: 04/22/2012] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
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22
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Cosentino M, Marino F. Adrenergic and dopaminergic modulation of immunity in multiple sclerosis: teaching old drugs new tricks? J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2012; 8:163-79. [PMID: 23074017 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-012-9410-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2012] [Accepted: 10/01/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune disorder of the CNS characterized by inflammation, demyelination and axonal loss. Classical evidence in experimental allergic encephalomyelitis, the animal model of MS, support the relevance of sympatoadrenergic as well as of dopaminergic mechanisms. In MS patients, dysregulation of adrenergic and dopaminergic pathways contribute to the disease in immune system cells as well as in glial cells. Available evidence is summarized and discussed also in the light of the novel role of dopamine, noradrenaline and adrenaline as transmitters in immune cells, providing a conceptual frame to exploit the potential of several dopaminergic and adrenergic agents, already in clinical use for non-immune indications and with a usually favourable risk-benefit profile, as add-on drugs to conventional immunomodulating therapies in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Cosentino
- Center for Research in Medical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Via Ottorino Rossi n. 9, 21100 Varese, VA, Italy.
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23
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The role of metabolomics in neurological disease. J Neuroimmunol 2012; 248:48-52. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jneuroim.2012.01.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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24
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Du C, Xie X. G protein-coupled receptors as therapeutic targets for multiple sclerosis. Cell Res 2012; 22:1108-28. [PMID: 22664908 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2012.87] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) mediate most of our physiological responses to hormones, neurotransmitters and environmental stimulants. They are considered as the most successful therapeutic targets for a broad spectrum of diseases. Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease that is characterized by immune-mediated demyelination and degeneration of the central nervous system (CNS). It is the leading cause of non-traumatic disability in young adults. Great progress has been made over the past few decades in understanding the pathogenesis of MS. Numerous data from animal and clinical studies indicate that many GPCRs are critically involved in various aspects of MS pathogenesis, including antigen presentation, cytokine production, T-cell differentiation, T-cell proliferation, T-cell invasion, etc. In this review, we summarize the recent findings regarding the expression or functional changes of GPCRs in MS patients or animal models, and the influences of GPCRs on disease severity upon genetic or pharmacological manipulations. Hopefully some of these findings will lead to the development of novel therapies for MS in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changsheng Du
- Laboratory of Receptor-Based BioMedicine, Shanghai Key Laboratory of Signaling and Disease Research, School of Life Sciences and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China
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25
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β2-adrenergic receptor and astrocyte glucose metabolism. J Mol Neurosci 2012; 48:456-63. [PMID: 22399228 DOI: 10.1007/s12031-012-9742-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/06/2012] [Accepted: 02/27/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Astrocyte glucose metabolism functions to maintain brain activity in both normal and stress conditions. Dysregulation of astrocyte glucose metabolism relates to development of neuronal disease, such as multiple sclerosis and Alzheimer's disease. In response to acute stress, beta2-adrenergic receptor is activated and initiates multiple signaling events mediated by Gs, Gi, arrestin, or other effectors depending on specific cellular contexts. In astrocytes, beta2-adrenergic receptor promotes glucose uptake through GLUT1 and accelerates glycogen degradation via coupling to Gs and second messenger cAMP-dependent pathway. Beta2-adrenergic receptor may regulate other steps in astrocyte glucose metabolism, such as lactate production or transduction. Inappropriate regulation of beta2-adrenergic receptor activity can disrupt normal glucose metabolism, and leads to accelerate neuronal disease development. It was demonstrated that the absence of beta2-adrenergic receptor in astrocytes occurred in multiple sclerosis patients, and the increased beta2-adrenergic receptor activity relates to Alzheimer's disease. A clear view of beta2-adrenergic receptor-mediated signaling pathways in regulating astrocyte glucose metabolism could help us to develop neuronal diseases treatment by targeting to the beta2-adrenergic receptor.
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26
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Cambron M, D'Haeseleer M, Laureys G, Clinckers R, Debruyne J, De Keyser J. White-matter astrocytes, axonal energy metabolism, and axonal degeneration in multiple sclerosis. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2012; 32:413-24. [PMID: 22214904 PMCID: PMC3293127 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2011.193] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In patients with multiple sclerosis (MS), a diffuse axonal degeneration occurring throughout the white matter of the central nervous system causes progressive neurologic disability. The underlying mechanism is unclear. This review describes a number of pathways by which dysfunctional astrocytes in MS might lead to axonal degeneration. White-matter astrocytes in MS show a reduced metabolism of adenosine triphosphate-generating phosphocreatine, which may impair the astrocytic sodium potassium pump and lead to a reduced sodium-dependent glutamate uptake. Astrocytes in MS white matter appear to be deficient in β(2) adrenergic receptors, which are involved in stimulating glycogenolysis and suppressing inducible nitric oxide synthase (NOS2). Glutamate toxicity, reduced astrocytic glycogenolysis leading to reduced lactate and glutamine production, and enhanced nitric oxide (NO) levels may all impair axonal mitochondrial metabolism, leading to axonal degeneration. In addition, glutamate-mediated oligodendrocyte damage and impaired myelination caused by a decreased production of N-acetylaspartate by axonal mitochondria might also contribute to axonal loss. White-matter astrocytes may be considered as a potential target for neuroprotective MS therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melissa Cambron
- Department of Neurology, Center for Neurosciences, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussel, Belgium
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27
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Marino F, Cosentino M. Adrenergic modulation of immune cells: an update. Amino Acids 2011; 45:55-71. [PMID: 22160285 DOI: 10.1007/s00726-011-1186-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2011] [Accepted: 11/23/2011] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Sympathoadrenergic pathways are crucial to the communication between the nervous system and the immune system. The present review addresses emerging issues in the adrenergic modulation of immune cells, including: the specific pattern of adrenoceptor expression on immune cells and their role and changes upon cell differentiation and activation; the production and utilization of noradrenaline and adrenaline by immune cells themselves; the dysregulation of adrenergic immune mechanisms in disease and their potential as novel therapeutic targets. A wide array of sympathoadrenergic therapeutics is currently used for non-immune indications, and could represent an attractive source of non-conventional immunomodulating agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franca Marino
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Section of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, University of Insubria, Via Ottorino Rossi n. 9, 21100 Varese, VA, Italy
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28
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Astrocytes as potential targets to suppress inflammatory demyelinating lesions in multiple sclerosis. Neurochem Int 2010; 57:446-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2010.02.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Revised: 02/09/2010] [Accepted: 02/12/2010] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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29
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Effect of focal cerebral ischaemia on modulatory neurotransmitter receptors in the rat brain: an autoradiographic study. J Chem Neuroanat 2010; 40:232-8. [PMID: 20600826 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2010.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2010] [Revised: 06/09/2010] [Accepted: 06/21/2010] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Neurotransmission is strongly affected after ischaemic insult. It is postulated that modulatory neurotransmitter systems and their receptors play a role in experience-dependent and restoration plasticity. In this study, muscarinic cholinergic, serotonergic 5-HT(2A/2C), dopaminergic D(1) and noradrenergic beta(1) receptors were examined after focal cerebral ischaemia in different brain regions, using quantitative in vitro autoradiography. There were six evaluated time points: 4h, 1, 4, 7, 28 and 60 days after the insult. Rats received unilateral ischaemic lesions through photo-thrombosis in the primary somatosensory cortex. In the lesion core, 5-HT(2A/2C), D(1) and beta(1) receptor binding values return to control levels 28 days after displaying initial decreases, while muscarinic binding remains very low, at 30% of controls. From 4h to 60 days post-stroke no changes are observed in the perilesional tissue. In contrast, in remote brain regions, a bilateral increase of serotonergic 5-HT(2A/2C) receptor binding in the somatosensory cortex at the striatum level is observed after 4h and after 7 days post-stroke. In addition, a bilateral decrease of muscarinic cholinergic receptor binding in the hippocampus is observed at each time point examined. This study points to a complex and remote reaction of modulatory systems in response to ischaemic lesions.
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30
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Laureys G, Clinckers R, Gerlo S, Spooren A, Wilczak N, Kooijman R, Smolders I, Michotte Y, De Keyser J. Astrocytic beta(2)-adrenergic receptors: from physiology to pathology. Prog Neurobiol 2010; 91:189-99. [PMID: 20138112 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2010.01.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2009] [Revised: 12/07/2009] [Accepted: 01/27/2010] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Evidence accumulates for a key role of the beta(2)-adrenergic receptors in the many homeostatic and neuroprotective functions of astrocytes, including glycogen metabolism, regulation of immune responses, release of neurotrophic factors, and the astrogliosis that occurs in response to neuronal injury. A dysregulation of the astrocytic beta(2)-adrenergic-pathway is suspected to contribute to the physiopathology of a number of prevalent and devastating neurological conditions such as multiple sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, human immunodeficiency virus encephalitis, stroke and hepatic encephalopathy. In this review we focus on the physiological functions of astrocytic beta(2)-adrenergic receptors, and their possible impact in disease states.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Laureys
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry and Drug Analysis, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
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31
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Simonini MV, Polak PE, Sharp A, McGuire S, Galea E, Feinstein DL. Increasing CNS noradrenaline reduces EAE severity. J Neuroimmune Pharmacol 2009; 5:252-9. [PMID: 19957206 DOI: 10.1007/s11481-009-9182-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2009] [Accepted: 11/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
The endogenous neurotransmitter noradrenaline (NA) is known to exert potent anti-inflammatory effects in glial cells, as well as provide neuroprotection against excitatory and inflammatory stimuli. These properties raise the possibility that increasing levels of NA in the central nervous system (CNS) could provide benefit in neurological diseases and conditions containing an inflammatory component. In the current study, we tested this possibility by examining the consequences of selectively modulating CNS NA levels on the development of clinical signs in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE). In mice immunized with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein peptide to develop a chronic disease, pretreatment to selectively deplete CNS NA levels exacerbated clinical scores. Elevation of NA levels using the selective NA reuptake inhibitor atomoxetine did not affect clinical scores, while treatment of immunized mice with the synthetic NA precursor L-threo-3,4-dihydroxyphenylserine (L-DOPS) prevented further worsening. In contrast, treatment of mice with a combination of atomoxetine and L-DOPS led to significant improvement in clinical scores as compared to the control group. The combined treatment reduced astrocyte activation in the molecular layer of the cerebellum as assessed by staining for glial fibrillary protein but did not affect Th1 or Th17 type cytokine production from splenic T cells. These data suggest that selective elevation of CNS NA levels could provide benefit in EAE and multiple sclerosis without influencing peripheral immune responses.
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32
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Krieger K, Klimke A, Henning U. Antipsychotic drugs influence transport of the β-adrenergic antagonist [3H]-dihydroalprenolol into neuronal and blood cells. World J Biol Psychiatry 2009; 5:100-6. [PMID: 15179669 DOI: 10.1080/15622970410029918] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
The amine hypothesis suggests that the cause of schizophrenic or depressive psychosis is dysfunction of noradrenergic or serotonergic neurotransmission. We investigated pharmacological properties of [3H]-dihydroalprenolol (DHA) transport into C6, IMR32, native lymphocytes, B-lymphoblastoids and MOLT-3 cells. DHA transport was inhibited by a heterogeneous group of structurally related compounds exhibiting an amine group and various aromatic ring structures. It was verified on cells of neuronal/glial and blood cell origin but in detail on B-lymphoblastoids. The latter once showed strongest inhibition of DHA transport using tricyclic antidepressants (amitriptyline: IC50 = 2.86 microM, imipramine: IC50 = 3.33 microM) and haloperidol (IC50 = 3.98 microM) as a neuroleptic. Antipsychotics like clozapine (IC50 = 11 microM), olanzapine (IC50 = 15 microM), spiperone (IC50 = 66 microM) and EMD 49980 (ICso >> 100 microM) were less effective. In contrast to cells of blood origin, a stimulation of DHA transport by antipsychotics was not detectable using neuronal cells. As antipsychotics showed a distinct inhibition and, concerning cells of blood origin, a stimulation of transport after pre-incubation, further investigations seem to be of interest in respect to its involvement in the cellular uptake of drugs and therefore its impact on the quality of therapy of psychiatric patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Klaus Krieger
- Neurobiochemical Research Unit, Department of Psychiatry, Heinrich-Heine-University Düsseldorf, Bergische Landstrasse 2, 40629 Duesseldorf, Germany.
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33
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Morioka N, Tanabe H, Inoue A, Dohi T, Nakata Y. Noradrenaline reduces the ATP-stimulated phosphorylation of p38 MAP kinase via beta-adrenergic receptors-cAMP-protein kinase A-dependent mechanism in cultured rat spinal microglia. Neurochem Int 2009; 55:226-34. [PMID: 19524113 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2009.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2009] [Revised: 03/06/2009] [Accepted: 03/09/2009] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
To elucidate the involvement of the noradrenergic system in the regulation of spinal microglial activity, we examined the effects of noradrenaline (NA) on the phosphorylation of three MAP kinases (extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), p38, or c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK)) stimulated by ATP in rat cultured spinal microglia using Western blotting. ATP (100 microM) quickly induced the phosphorylation of three MAP kinases and MKK3/6, which are upstream kinases of p38. Under these conditions, NA inhibited only the ATP-stimulated phosphorylation of p38 in a time (30-60 min)- and dose (10-100 microM)-dependent manner, but did not affect those of ERK, JNK, or MKK3/6. The inhibitory action of NA was completely reversed by pretreatment with propranolol, an antagonist for beta-adrenoceptors, or both atenolol and ICI118551, selective antagonists for beta1 and beta2, respectively. Treatment with dibutyryl cAMP or the selective activator of PKA mimicked the inhibitory effect of NA. Furthermore, treatment with KT5720, an inhibitor of protein kinase A, completely blocked the action of NA. These data suggest that NA could control the activation of p38 through the beta1/2-adrenergic pathways, which include the production of cAMP and the activation of PKA. Simultaneously, we found that NA also markedly inhibited the ATP-induced increase in the expression of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-alpha mRNA through beta-adrenergic pathways. Furthermore, preincubation with either actinomycin D or cyclohexamide, general inhibitors of transcription or protein synthesis, respectively, almost completely blocked the inhibitory action of NA on the ATP-stimulated phosphorylation of p38. These results suggest that de novo synthesis of certain factors by NA through beta-adrenoceptors would participate in the modulation of p38 activity. Thus, the inhibitory system via beta1/2-adrenergic pathways in spinal microglia appears to have an important role in the modulation of microglial functions through the downregulation of p38 activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norimitsu Morioka
- Department of Pharmacology, Hiroshima University Graduate School of Biomedical Sciences, 1-2-3 Kasumi, Minami-ku, Hiroshima 734-8553, Japan.
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34
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De Keyser J, Steen C, Mostert JP, Koch MW. Hypoperfusion of the cerebral white matter in multiple sclerosis: possible mechanisms and pathophysiological significance. J Cereb Blood Flow Metab 2008; 28:1645-51. [PMID: 18594554 DOI: 10.1038/jcbfm.2008.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 78] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disease of the central nervous system characterized by patchy areas of demyelination, inflammation, axonal loss and gliosis, and a diffuse axonal degeneration throughout the so-called normal-appearing white matter (NAWM). A number of recent studies using perfusion magnetic resonance imaging in both relapsing and progressive forms of MS have shown a decreased perfusion of the NAWM, which does not appear to be secondary to axonal loss. The reduced perfusion of the NAWM in MS might be caused by a widespread astrocyte dysfunction, possibly related to a deficiency in astrocytic beta(2)-adrenergic receptors and a reduced formation of cAMP, resulting in a reduced uptake of K(+) at the nodes of Ranvier and a reduced release of K(+) in the perivascular spaces. Pathologic and imaging studies suggest that ischemic changes might be involved in the development of a subtype of focal demyelinating lesions (type III lesions), and there appears to exist a relationship between decreased white matter perfusion and cognitive dysfunction in patients with MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques De Keyser
- Department of Neurology, Universitair Ziekenhuis Brussel, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Brussels, Belgium.
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35
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van Waarde A, Doorduin J, de Jong JR, Dierckx RA, Elsinga PH. Synthesis and preliminary evaluation of (S)-[11C]-exaprolol, a novel β-adrenoceptor ligand for PET. Neurochem Int 2008; 52:729-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2007.09.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/31/2007] [Accepted: 09/03/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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36
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Chesik D, Glazenburg L, De Keyser J, Wilczak N. Enhanced proliferation of astrocytes from beta(2)-adrenergic receptor knockout mice is influenced by the IGF system. J Neurochem 2007; 100:1555-64. [PMID: 17348863 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2006.04289.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
In the present study, we investigated the IGF system in neonatal astrocytes derived from mice with a targeted disruption of the beta-2 adrenergic receptor (beta(2)AR). beta(2)AR knockout astrocytes demonstrated higher proliferation rates and increased expression of the astrogliotic marker GFAP, as compared with wild-type cells. beta(2)AR deletion also regulated molecules of the IGF system. Although IGF-1 levels remained unaltered, IGF-2 and type 1 IGF receptor expression was increased in beta(2)AR knockout cells. Furthermore, conditioned medium from knockout astrocytes contained lower levels of IGF binding protein-2 and -4. Our data suggest a deficit of beta(2)AR on astrocytes, as previously reported in multiple sclerosis, may have implications on proliferative status of astrocytes, a feature that might be attributed to regulation of IGF mitogenic actions.
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MESH Headings
- Animals
- Animals, Newborn
- Astrocytes/chemistry
- Astrocytes/drug effects
- Astrocytes/physiology
- Cell Count
- Cell Proliferation/drug effects
- Cells, Cultured
- Cerebral Cortex/cytology
- Culture Media, Conditioned/pharmacology
- Dose-Response Relationship, Drug
- Gene Expression Regulation/genetics
- Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein 1/metabolism
- Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein 4/metabolism
- Insulin-Like Growth Factor Binding Protein 4/pharmacology
- Mice
- Mice, Knockout
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- Receptor, IGF Type 1/metabolism
- Receptor, IGF Type 2/metabolism
- Receptors, Adrenergic, beta-2/deficiency
- Reverse Transcriptase Polymerase Chain Reaction/methods
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Chesik
- Department of Neurology, University Medical Center Groningen, Groningen, the Netherlands.
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37
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Kaneko YS, Mori K, Nakashima A, Sawada M, Nagatsu I, Ota A. Peripheral injection of lipopolysaccharide enhances expression of inflammatory cytokines in murine locus coeruleus: possible role of increased norepinephrine turnover. J Neurochem 2005; 94:393-404. [PMID: 15998290 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2005.03209.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Cytokines and catecholamines are known to constitute a significant portion of the regulatory neuroimmune networks involved in maintaining homeostasis in the central nervous system (CNS). Although we have already reported an increase in norepinephrine (NE) turnover within the locus coeruleus (LC) at 2 and 4 h after the intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of lipopolysaccharide (LPS), the implication of this increase remains unclear. In view of evidence that norepinephrine (NE) acts in an anti-inflammatory manner by way of negatively regulating pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, we examined the inflammatory cytokine expression levels in the LC of C3H/HeN mice (male, 8 weeks old) after an i.p. LPS injection. The mRNA expression levels of the genes encoding IL-1beta and TNF-alpha within the LC increased during the first 2 h, and showed two peaks, the first at 4 h and the second lesser one at 15 h after the LPS injection. Microglia, which are one of the major cell types that produce pro-inflammatory cytokines in the CNS, were isolated from mouse neonate brains in order to clarify more precisely the relationship between the changes in NE content and the up-regulation of inflammatory cytokines in the LC. Simultaneous incubation of microglia with LPS and NE enhanced the expression of IL-1beta at both mRNA and protein levels, but reduced the mRNA and protein levels of TNF-alpha. These data support the hypothesis that NE negatively regulates the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokine expression, at least in the case of TNF-alpha, which action could contribute to the observed anti-inflammatory properties of NE. This report, based on the results of both in vivo and in vitro experiments, is the first to suggest a relationship between NE content and cytokine expression levels in the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yoko S Kaneko
- Department of Physiology, Fujita Health University School of Medicine, Toyoake, Japan
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38
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Gavrilyuk V, Kalinin S, Hilbush BS, Middlecamp A, McGuire S, Pelligrino D, Weinberg G, Feinstein DL. Identification of complement 5a-like receptor (C5L2) from astrocytes: characterization of anti-inflammatory properties. J Neurochem 2005; 92:1140-9. [PMID: 15715664 DOI: 10.1111/j.1471-4159.2004.02942.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Brain inflammation is regulated by endogenous substances, including neurotransmitters such as noradrenaline (NA), which can increase anti-inflammatory genes. To identify NA-regulated, anti-inflammatory genes, we used TOGA (total gene expression analysis) to screen rat astrocyte-derived RNA. NA-inducible cDNA clone DST11 encodes an isoform of the complement C5a receptor (C5aR), with 39% identity at the amino acid level to the rat C5aR, and 56% identity to a recently described human C5aR variant termed C5L2 (complement 5a-like receptor). Quantitative PCR confirmed that in astrocytes, DST11 mRNA expression is increased by NA, whereas in vivo depletion of cortical NA reduced DST11 levels. Western blot analysis demonstrated basal and NA-induced expression of DST11 as a 45 kDa protein in primary astrocytes cultures. Immunocytochemical staining of adult rat brain revealed DST11-immunoreactivity throughout brain, co-localized to neurons and astrocytes. In astrocytes, induction of nitric oxide synthase type 2 was increased by treatment with antisense oligonucleotides to DST11. Reducing DST11 expression also increased nuclear factor kappaB reporter gene, and decreased cAMP response element reporter gene activation. These results demonstrate that DST11 is a C5aR isoform expressed by glia and neurons, which is regulated by NA, and exerts anti-inflammatory functions. Changes in DST11 levels in diseased brain could therefore contribute to the progression of inflammatory damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaliy Gavrilyuk
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA.
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Dello Russo C, Boullerne AI, Gavrilyuk V, Feinstein DL. Inhibition of microglial inflammatory responses by norepinephrine: effects on nitric oxide and interleukin-1beta production. J Neuroinflammation 2004; 1:9. [PMID: 15285793 PMCID: PMC500870 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-1-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/18/2004] [Accepted: 06/30/2004] [Indexed: 03/13/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND: Under pathological conditions, microglia produce proinflammatory mediators which contribute to neurologic damage, and whose levels can be modulated by endogenous factors including neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine (NE). We investigated the ability of NE to suppress microglial activation, in particular its effects on induction and activity of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase (NOS2) and the possible role that IL-1beta plays in that response. METHODS: Rat cortical microglia were stimulated with bacterial lipopolysaccharide (LPS) to induce NOS2 expression (assessed by nitrite and nitrate accumulation, NO production, and NOS2 mRNA levels) and IL-1beta release (assessed by ELISA). Effects of NE were examined by co-incubating cells with different concentrations of NE, adrenergic receptor agonists and antagonists, cAMP analogs, and protein kinase (PK) A and adenylate cyclase (AC) inhibitors. Effects on the NFkappaB:IkappaB pathway were examined by using selective a NFkappaB inhibitor and measuring IkappaBalpha protein levels by western blots. A role for IL-1beta in NOS2 induction was tested by examining effects of caspase-1 inhibitors and using caspase-1 deficient cells. RESULTS: LPS caused a time-dependent increase in NOS2 mRNA levels and NO production; which was blocked by a selective NFkappaB inhibitor. NE dose-dependently reduced NOS2 expression and NO generation, via activation of beta2-adrenergic receptors (beta2-ARs), and reduced loss of inhibitory IkBalpha protein. NE effects were replicated by dibutyryl-cyclic AMP. However, co-incubation with either PKA or AC inhibitors did not reverse suppressive effects of NE, but instead reduced nitrite production. A role for IL-1beta was suggested since NE potently blocked microglial IL-1beta production. However, incubation with a caspase-1 inhibitor, which reduced IL-1beta levels, had no effect on NO production; incubation with IL-receptor antagonist had biphasic effects on nitrite production; and NE inhibited nitrite production in caspase-1 deficient microglia. CONCLUSIONS: NE reduces microglial NOS2 expression and IL-1beta production, however IL-1beta does not play a critical role in NOS2 induction nor in mediating NE suppressive effects. Changes in magnitude or kinetics of cAMP may modulate NOS2 induction as well as suppression by NE. These results suggest that dysregulation of the central cathecolaminergic system may contribute to detrimental inflammatory responses and brain damage in neurological disease or trauma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cinzia Dello Russo
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois, & West Side Veteran's Affairs Research Division, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A
- Institute of Pharmacology, Catholic University Medical School, Rome, Italy
| | - Anne I Boullerne
- Department of Neurology, University of Chicago, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A
| | - Vitaliy Gavrilyuk
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois, & West Side Veteran's Affairs Research Division, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A
| | - Douglas L Feinstein
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois, & West Side Veteran's Affairs Research Division, Chicago, Illinois, U.S.A
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De Keyser J, Zeinstra E, Wilczak N. Astrocytic beta2-adrenergic receptors and multiple sclerosis. Neurobiol Dis 2004; 15:331-9. [PMID: 15006703 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2003.10.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2003] [Accepted: 11/07/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite intensive research, the cause and a cure of multiple sclerosis (MS) have remained elusive and many aspects of the pathogenesis are not understood. Immunohistochemical experiments have shown that astrocytic beta(2)-adrenergic receptors are lost in MS. Because norepinephrine mediates important supportive and protective actions of astrocytes via activation of these beta(2)-adrenergic receptors, we postulate that this abnormality may play a prominent role in the pathogenesis of MS. First, it may allow astrocytes to act as facultative antigen-presenting cells, thereby initiating T-cell mediated inflammatory responses that lead to the characteristic demyelinated lesions. Second, it may contribute to inflammatory injury by stimulating the production of nitric oxide and proinflammatory cytokines, and reducing glutamate uptake. Third, it may lead to apoptosis of oligodendrocytes by reducing the astrocytic production of trophic factors, including neuregulin, nerve growth factor and brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Fourth, it may impair astrocytic glycogenolysis, which supplies energy to axons, and this may represent a mechanism underlying axonal degeneration that is hold responsible for the progressive chronic disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques De Keyser
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Groningen, Groningen, The Netherlands.
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De Keyser J, Zeinstra E, Mostert J, Wilczak N. Beta 2-adrenoceptor involvement in inflammatory demyelination and axonal degeneration in multiple sclerosis. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2004; 25:67-71. [PMID: 15102491 DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2003.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Relapses of multiple sclerosis (MS) are considered to be the clinical expression of acute T-cell-mediated inflammatory demyelinating lesions disseminated in the CNS, whereas disease progression seems to result from widespread axonal degeneration. The pathophysiology of both disease components is incompletely understood. Astrocytes in MS lack beta(2)-adrenoceptors, which via cAMP-mediated processes inhibit the expression of major histocompatibility (MHC) class II molecules and stimulate glycogenolysis in normal conditions. In a pro-inflammatory CNS environment this beta(2)-adrenoceptor defect might allow astrocytes to transform into facultative antigen-presenting cells that can initiate the inflammatory cascade. The same receptor defect might impair astrocytic glycogenolysis, which normally generates lactate that is transported to axons as an energy source. Failure of axonal energy metabolism might result in axonal degeneration through mechanisms that involve intra-axonal accumulation of Ca(2+) ions and mitochondrial dysfunction. If this hypothesis is correct, therapies designed to elevate cAMP levels in astrocytes should reduce or prevent both relapses and progression of MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacques De Keyser
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9713 GZ Groningen, The Netherlands
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Feinstein DL, Heneka MT, Gavrilyuk V, Dello Russo C, Weinberg G, Galea E. Noradrenergic regulation of inflammatory gene expression in brain. Neurochem Int 2002; 41:357-65. [PMID: 12176079 DOI: 10.1016/s0197-0186(02)00049-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
It is now well accepted that inflammatory events contribute to the pathogenesis of numerous neurological disorders, including multiple sclerosis (MS), Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease, and AID's dementia. Whereas inflammation in the periphery is subject to rapid down regulation by increases in anti-inflammatory molecules and the presence of scavenging soluble cytokine receptors, the presence of an intact blood-brain barrier may limit a similar autoregulation from occurring in brain. Mechanisms intrinsic to the brain may provide additional immunomodulatory functions, and whose dysregulation could contribute to increased inflammation in disease. The findings that noradrenaline (NA) reduces cytokine expression in microglial, astroglial, and brain endothelial cells in vitro, and that modification of the noradrenergic signaling system occurs in some brain diseases having an inflammatory component, suggests that NA could act as an endogenous immunomodulator in brain. Furthermore, accumulating studies indicate that modification of the noradrenergic signaling system occurs in some neurodiseases. In this article, we will briefly review the evidence that NA can modulate inflammatory gene expression in vitro, summarize data supporting a similar immunomodulatory role in brain, and present recent data implicating a role for NA in attenuating the cortical inflammatory response to beta amyloid protein.
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Zeinstra E, te Riele P, Langlois X, Wilczak N, Leysen J, de Keyser J. Aminergic receptors in astrogliotic plaques from patients with multiple sclerosis. Neurosci Lett 2002; 331:87-90. [PMID: 12361847 DOI: 10.1016/s0304-3940(02)00842-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
Cultured astrocytes express a spectrum of neurotransmitter receptors. However, little is known about these receptors in situ. We previously reported the absence of beta(2) adrenergic receptors on astrocytes in multiple sclerosis (MS). Here we used [(3)H]-radioligands and receptor autoradiography to screen for a variety of other aminergic receptors in six silent chronic astrogliotic plaques in brain tissue obtained from five patients with MS. Dopamine D(1) and histamine H(1) receptors were absent. We detected specific binding for cholinergic muscarinic receptors > dopamine D(2), alpha(1-) and alpha(2)-adrenergic receptors > 5-HT(1A), 5-HT(1B/D), 5-HT(2A), 5-HT(2c), 5-HT(4), and dopamine D(3) receptors. Radiotracers for these aminergic receptors might be useful for studying astrogliosis in patients with MS, and compounds acting at some of these receptors may have potential to modulate astroglial function in MS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Esther Zeinstra
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital Groningen, Hanzeplein 1, 9700RB, The, Groningen, Netherlands
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Gavrilyuk V, Dello Russo C, Heneka MT, Pelligrino D, Weinberg G, Feinstein DL. Norepinephrine increases I kappa B alpha expression in astrocytes. J Biol Chem 2002; 277:29662-8. [PMID: 12050158 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m203256200] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The neurotransmitter norepinephrine (NE) can inhibit inflammatory gene expression in glial cells; however, the mechanisms involved are not clear. In primary astrocytes, NE dose-dependently increased the expression of inhibitory I kappa B alpha protein accompanied by an increase in steady state levels of I kappa B alpha mRNA. Maximal increases were observed at 30-60 min for the mRNA and at 4 h for protein, and these effects were mediated by NE binding to beta-adrenergic receptors. NE activated a 1.3-kilobase I kappa B alpha promoter transfected into astrocytes or C6 glioma cells, and this activation was prevented by a beta-antagonist and by protein kinase A inhibitors but not by an NF kappa B inhibitor. NE increased I kappa B alpha protein in both the cytosolic and the nuclear fractions, suggesting an increase in nuclear uptake of I kappa B alpha. I kappa B alpha was detected in the frontal cortex of normal adult rats, and its levels were reduced if central NE levels were depleted by lesion of the locus ceruleus. The reduction of brain I kappa B alpha levels was paralleled by increased inflammatory responses to lipopolysaccharide. These results demonstrate that I kappa B alpha expression is regulated by NE at both transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels, which could contribute to the observed anti-inflammatory properties of NE in vitro and in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vitaliy Gavrilyuk
- Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois at Chicago, Chicago, Illinois 60612, USA
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