Zinc potentiates 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine induced dopamine depletion in caudate nucleus of mice brain

The Role of Zinc in Modulating Acid-Sensing Ion Channel Function

Acid-sensing ion channels (ASICs) are proton-gated, voltage-independent sodium channels widely expressed throughout the central and peripheral nervous systems. They are involved in synaptic plasticity, learning/memory, fear conditioning and pain. Zinc, an important trace metal in the body, contributes to numerous physiological functions, with neurotransmission being of note. Zinc has been implicated in the modulation of ASICs by binding to specific sites on these channels and exerting either stimulatory or inhibitory effects depending on the ASIC subtype. ASICs have been linked to several neurological and psychological disorders, such as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, ischemic stroke, epilepsy and cocaine addiction. Different ASIC isoforms contribute to the persistence of each of these neurological and psychological disorders. It is critical to understand how various zinc concentrations can modulate specific ASIC subtypes and how zinc regulation of ASICs can contribute to neurological and psychological diseases. This review elucidates zinc's structural interactions with ASICs and discusses the potential therapeutic implications zinc may have on neurological and psychological diseases through targeting ASICs.

ATP13A2 Declines Zinc-Induced Accumulation of α-Synuclein in a Parkinson’s Disease Model

Parkinson’s disease (PD) is characterized by the presence of Lewy bodies caused by α-synuclein. The imbalance of zinc homeostasis is a major cause of PD, promoting α-synuclein accumulation. ATP13A2, a transporter found in acidic vesicles, plays an important role in Zn²⁺ homeostasis and is highly expressed in Lewy bodies in PD-surviving neurons. ATP13A2 is involved in the transport of zinc ions in lysosomes and exosomes and inhibits the aggregation of α-synuclein. However, the potential mechanism underlying the regulation of zinc homeostasis and α-synuclein accumulation by ATP13A2 remains unexplored. We used α-synuclein-GFP transgenic mice and HEK293 α-synuclein-DsRed cell line as models. The spatial exploration behavior of mice was significantly reduced, and phosphorylation levels of α-synuclein increased upon high Zn²⁺ treatment. High Zn²⁺ also inhibited the autophagy pathway by reducing LAMP2a levels and changing the expression of LC3 and P62, by reducing mitochondrial membrane potential and increasing the expression of cytochrom C, and by activating the ERK/P38 apoptosis signaling pathway, ultimately leading to increased caspase 3 levels. These protein changes were reversed after ATP13A2 overexpression, whereas ATP13A2 knockout exacerbated α-synuclein phosphorylation levels. These results suggest that ATP13A2 may have a protective effect on Zn²⁺-induced abnormal aggregation of α-synuclein, lysosomal dysfunction, and apoptosis.

Zinc in Regulating Protein Kinases and Phosphatases in Neurodegenerative Diseases

Zinc is essential for human growth and development. As a trace nutrient, zinc plays important roles in numerous signal transduction pathways involved in distinct physiologic or pathologic processes. Protein phosphorylation is a posttranslational modification which regulates protein activity, degradation, and interaction with other molecules. Protein kinases (PKs) and phosphatases (PPs), with their effects of adding phosphate to or removing phosphate from certain substrates, are master regulators in controlling the phosphorylation of proteins. In this review, we summarize the disturbance of zinc homeostasis and role of zinc disturbance in regulating protein kinases and protein phosphatases in neurodegenerative diseases, with the focus of that in Alzheimer’s disease, providing a new perspective for understanding the mechanisms of these neurologic diseases.

Synaptic Zinc: An Emerging Player in Parkinson's Disease

Alterations of zinc homeostasis have long been implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD). Zinc plays a complex role as both deficiency and excess of intracellular zinc levels have been incriminated in the pathophysiology of the disease. Besides its role in multiple cellular functions, Zn²⁺ also acts as a synaptic transmitter in the brain. In the forebrain, subset of glutamatergic neurons, namely cortical neurons projecting to the striatum, use Zn²⁺ as a messenger alongside glutamate. Overactivation of the cortico-striatal glutamatergic system is a key feature contributing to the development of PD symptoms and dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Here, we will cover recent evidence implicating synaptic Zn²⁺ in the pathophysiology of PD and discuss its potential mechanisms of actions. Emphasis will be placed on the functional interaction between Zn²⁺ and glutamatergic NMDA receptors, the most extensively studied synaptic target of Zn²⁺.

Postnatal zinc or paraquat administration increases paraquat or zinc-induced loss of dopaminergic neurons: insight into augmented neurodegeneration

Epidemiological evidences have shown an association of exposure to pesticides or heavy metals with increased incidences of Parkinson's disease (PD) in humans. Exposure to pesticides or metals during the decisive period of the brain development increases the susceptibility of dopaminergic neurons upon re-exposure in adult rodents. However, the effect of early life exposure to pesticide on the heavy metal-induced neurodegeneration or heavy metal on pesticide-induced neurodegeneration is not yet explored. The current study explored the effect of developmental exposure to zinc (Zn), a metal or paraquat (PQ), a pesticide on the nigrostriatal dopaminergic neurons of rats challenged to Zn or PQ during adulthood. Exposure of Zn or PQ during adulthood alone exhibited marked reduction in motor activities, striatal dopamine and metabolites, glutathione content and number of dopaminergic neurons. However, the levels of lipid peroxidation, protein carbonyls, superoxide dismutase activity, pro-inflammatory cytokines and 4-hydroxynonenal-protein adducts were increased. While the expression of vesicular monoamine transporter-2 and tyrosine hydroxylase were attenuated, dopamine transporter and microglial marker Iba-1 expression, activated microglia, nuclear factor-kappa B activation, mitochondrial cytochrome c release and caspase-3/9 activation were augmented following Zn or PQ exposure. Albeit postnatal alone exposure did not alter any of the studied parameters, the developmental administration of Zn/PQ in re-challenged adult rats produced more pronounced changes in the aforementioned variables as compared with adulthood Zn or PQ alone intoxicated animals. The results demonstrate that postnatal Zn/PQ intoxication dents the oxidative stress, inflammation, cell death and dopamine metabolism and storage regulating machineries, which speed up the toxicant-induced degeneration during adulthood.

Synaptic zinc contributes to motor and cognitive deficits in 6-hydroxydopamine mouse models of Parkinson's disease

Hyperactivity of glutamatergic corticostrial pathways is recognized as a key pathophysiological mechanism contributing to development of PD symptoms and dopaminergic neurotoxicity. Subset of corticostriatal projection neurons uses Zn²⁺ as a co-transmitter alongside glutamate, but the role of synaptically released Zn²⁺ in PD remains unexplored. We used genetically modified mice and pharmacological tools in combination with 6-hydroxydopamine (6-OHDA) lesion models of PD to investigate the contribution of synaptic zinc to disease associated behavioral deficits and neurodegeneration. Vesicular zinc transporter-3 (ZnT3) knockout mice lacking releasable Zn²⁺ were more resistant to locomotor deficit and memory impairment of nigrostriatal dopamine (DA) denervation compared to wildtype littermates. The loss of striatal dopaminergic fibers was comparable between genotypes, indicating that synaptically released Zn²⁺ contributes to behavioral deficits but not neurotoxic effects of 6-OHDA. To gain further insight into the mechanisms of Zn²⁺ actions, we used the extracellular Zn²⁺ chelator CaEDTA and knock-in mice lacking the high affinity Zn²⁺ inhibition of GluN2A-containing NMDA receptors (GluN2A-NMDARs). Acute chelation of extracellular Zn²⁺ in the striatum restored locomotor deficit of 6-OHDA lesion, confirming that synaptic Zn²⁺ suppresses locomotor behavior. Disruption of the Zn²⁺-GluN2A interaction had, on the other hand, no impact on locomotor deficit or neurotoxic effect of 6-OHDA. Collectively, these findings provide clear evidence for the implication of striatal synaptic Zn²⁺ in the pathophysiology of PD. They unveil that synaptic Zn²⁺ plays predominantly a detrimental role by promoting motor and cognitive deficits caused by nigrostriatal DA denervation, pointing towards new therapeutic interventions.

Effect of zinc and paraquat co-exposure on neurodegeneration: Modulation of oxidative stress and expression of metallothioneins, toxicant responsive and transporter genes in rats

Oxidative stress is implicated in Parkinson's disease (PD). Metallothioneins (MT), cytochrome P450 IIE1 (CYP2E1) and glutathione S-transferases alpha4-4 (GSTA4-4) are involved in oxidative stress-mediated damage. Altered dopamine transporter (DAT) and vesicular monoamine transporter-2 (VMAT-2) are also documented in PD. The present study was undertaken to investigate the effect of Zn and PQ co-exposure on neurodegeneration in rats. A significant reduction was observed in spontaneous locomotor activity (SLA), striatal dopamine (DA) levels, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity, glutathione reductase (GR) and catalase activity along with increased lipid peroxidation (LPO) and glutathione peroxidase (GPx) activity after Zn and/or PQ exposure. Zn and/or PQ exposure increased gene expression of DAT, CYP2E1, GSTA4-4, MT-I and MT-II, but reduced the expression of VMAT-2. Protein expression analysis of TH, VMAT-2 and DAT showed results similar to those obtained with gene expression study. Zn and PQ co-exposure caused a more pronounced effect than that of individual exposure. The results obtained in this study suggest that, similar to PQ, Zn induced neurodegeneration via alterations in oxidative stress and expression of the above-mentioned genes. However, the effect of Zn+PQ was only slightly higher than that of alone, indicating that probably Zn and PQ follow some different molecular events leading to neurodegeneration.

The Interaction of Manganese Nanoparticles with PC-12 Cells Induces Dopamine Depletion

This investigation was designed to determine whether nano-sized manganese oxide (Mn-40 nm) particles would induce dopamine (DA) depletion in a cultured neuronal phenotype, PC-12 cells, similar to free ionic manganese (Mn(2+)). Cells were exposed to Mn-40 nm, Mn(2+) (acetate), or known cytotoxic silver nanoparticles (Ag-15 nm) for 24 h. Phase-contrast microscopy studies show that Mn-40 nm or Mn(2+) exposure did not greatly change morphology of PC-12 cells. However, Ag-15 nm and AgNO(3) produce cell shrinkage and irregular membrane borders compared to control cells. Further microscopic studies at higher resolution demonstrated that Mn-40 nm nanoparticles and agglomerates were effectively internalized by PC-12 cells. Mitochondrial reduction activity, a sensitive measure of particle and metal cytotoxicity, showed only moderate toxicity for Mn-40 nm compared to similar Ag-15 nm and Mn(2+) doses. Mn-40 nm and Mn(2+) dose dependently depleted DA and its metabolites, dihydroxyphenylacetic acid (DOPAC) and homovanillic acid (HVA), while Ag-15 nm only significantly reduced DA and DOPAC at concentrations of 50 mug/ml. Therefore, the DA depletion of Mn-40 nm was most similar to Mn(2+), which is known to induce concentration-dependent DA depletion. There was a significant increase (> 10-fold) in reactive oxygen species (ROS) with Mn-40 nm exposure, suggesting that increased ROS levels may participate in DA depletion. These results clearly demonstrate that nanoscale manganese can deplete DA, DOPAC, and HVA in a dose-dependent manner. Further study is required to evaluate the specific intracellular distribution of Mn-40 nm nanoparticles, metal dissolution rates in cells and cellular matrices, if DA depletion is induced in vivo, and the propensity of Mn nanoparticles to cross the blood-brain barrier or be selectively uptaken by nasal epithelium.