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Zhou Q, Xu J, Fang H. A CPG-Based Versatile Control Framework for Metameric Earthworm-Like Robotic Locomotion. ADVANCED SCIENCE (WEINHEIM, BADEN-WURTTEMBERG, GERMANY) 2023; 10:e2206336. [PMID: 36775888 DOI: 10.1002/advs.202206336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2022] [Revised: 01/08/2023] [Indexed: 05/18/2023]
Abstract
Annelids such as earthworms are considered to have central pattern generators (CPGs) that generate rhythms in neural circuits to coordinate the deformation of body segments for effective locomotion. At present, the states of earthworm-like robot segments are often assigned holistically and artificially by mimicking the earthworms' retrograde peristalsis wave, which is unable to adapt their gaits for variable environments and tasks. This motivates the authors to extend the bioinspired research from morphology to neurobiology by mimicking the CPG to build a versatile framework for spontaneous motion control. Here, the spatiotemporal dynamics is exploited from the coupled Hopf oscillators to not only unify the two existing gait generators for restoring temporal-symmetric phase-coordinated gaits and discrete gaits but also generate novel temporal-asymmetric phase-coordinated gaits. Theoretical and experimental tests consistently confirm that the introduction of temporal asymmetry improves the robot's locomotion performance. The CPG-based controller also enables seamless online switching of locomotion gaits to avoid abrupt changes, sharp stops, and starts, thus improving the robot's adaptability in variable working scenarios.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qinyan Zhou
- Institute of AI and Robotics, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Engineering Research Center of AI & Robotics, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Jian Xu
- Institute of AI and Robotics, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Engineering Research Center of AI & Robotics, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
| | - Hongbin Fang
- Institute of AI and Robotics, State Key Laboratory of Medical Neurobiology, MOE Engineering Research Center of AI & Robotics, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200433, China
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Shim H, Sim K, Ershad F, Yang P, Thukral A, Rao Z, Kim HJ, Liu Y, Wang X, Gu G, Gao L, Wang X, Chai Y, Yu C. Stretchable elastic synaptic transistors for neurologically integrated soft engineering systems. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2019; 5:eaax4961. [PMID: 31646177 PMCID: PMC6788872 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.aax4961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2019] [Accepted: 09/18/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Artificial synaptic devices that can be stretched similar to those appearing in soft-bodied animals, such as earthworms, could be seamlessly integrated onto soft machines toward enabled neurological functions. Here, we report a stretchable synaptic transistor fully based on elastomeric electronic materials, which exhibits a full set of synaptic characteristics. These characteristics retained even the rubbery synapse that is stretched by 50%. By implementing stretchable synaptic transistor with mechanoreceptor in an array format, we developed a deformable sensory skin, where the mechanoreceptors interface the external stimulations and generate presynaptic pulses and then the synaptic transistors render postsynaptic potentials. Furthermore, we demonstrated a soft adaptive neurorobot that is able to perform adaptive locomotion based on robotic memory in a programmable manner upon physically tapping the skin. Our rubbery synaptic transistor and neurologically integrated devices pave the way toward enabled neurological functions in soft machines and other applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunseok Shim
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Kyoseung Sim
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Faheem Ershad
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Pinyi Yang
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Anish Thukral
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Zhoulyu Rao
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Hae-Jin Kim
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
- School of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, Gyeongsang National University, 501, Jinju-daero, Jinju, Gyeongnam 52828, Korea
| | - Yanghui Liu
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Xu Wang
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Guoying Gu
- State Key Laboratory of Mechanical System and Vibration, Robotics Institute, and School of Mechanical Engineering, Shanghai Jiao Tong University, Shanghai 200240, China
| | - Li Gao
- Key Laboratory for Organic Electronics and Information Displays (KLOEID), Institute of Advanced Materials (IAM), and School of Materials Science and Engineering, Nanjing University of Posts and Telecommunications, 9 Wenyuan Road, Nanjing 210046, China
| | - Xinran Wang
- National Laboratory of Solid State Microstructures, School of Electronic Science and Engineering, Collaborative Innovation Center of Advanced Microstructures, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210093, China
| | - Yang Chai
- Department of Applied Physics, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China
| | - Cunjiang Yu
- Materials Science and Engineering Program, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
- Department of Mechanical Engineering, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
- Department of Electrical and Computer Engineering, Texas Center for Superconductivity, University of Houston, Houston, TX 77204, USA
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Shimoi T, Mizutani K, Kojima D, Kitamura Y, Hotta K, Ogawa H, Oka K. Identification of oscillatory firing neurons associated with locomotion in the earthworm through synapse imaging. Neuroscience 2014; 268:149-58. [PMID: 24657777 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.03.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2013] [Revised: 03/06/2014] [Accepted: 03/10/2014] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
We used FM imaging to identify neurons that receive sensory feedback from the body wall in a circuit for octopamine (OA)-evoked rhythmic locomotion in the earthworm, Eisenia fetida. We visualized synapses in which postsynaptic neurons receive the sensory feedback, by using FM1-43 dye to label the synapses of both motor and sensory pathways that are associated with locomotion, then clearing the motor pathway synapse labeling, and finally identifying the target synapses by distinguishing physiologically functional synapses through destaining using a high-K(+) solution. A pair of synaptic regions associated with the sensory feedback was found to be located two or three cell body-widths away from the midline, between the anterior parts of the roots of the second lateral nerves (LNs) at the segmental ganglia (SGs). Using conventional intracellular recording and dye loading of the cell bodies surrounding these synaptic regions, we identified a pair of bilateral neurons with cell bodies larger than those of other cells in these regions, and named them "Oscillatory firing neurons Projecting to Peripheral nerves" (OPPs). These had a bipolar shape and projected neurites to the ipsilateral first and third LNs, fired rhythmically, and had a burst timing synchronized with the motor pattern bursts from the ipsilateral first LNs. Current injection into an OPP caused firing in the ipsilateral first LNs, supporting the hypothesis that OPPs functionally project to the peripheral nerves. OPPs also sent neurites to the adjacent anterior and posterior SGs, suggesting connections with the adjacent segments. We conclude that FM imaging can be used to identify neurons involved in specific functions, and that OPPs are the first neurons to be associated with OA-induced locomotion in the earthworm.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Shimoi
- Center for Biosciences and Informatics, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - K Mizutani
- Department of Human and Information Science, Tokai University, Kanagawa, Japan
| | - D Kojima
- Center for Biosciences and Informatics, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Y Kitamura
- Department of Mathematical Sciences and Physics, College of Science and Engineering, Kanto Gakuin University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - K Hotta
- Center for Biosciences and Informatics, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan
| | - H Ogawa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science, Hokkaido University, Sapporo, Japan
| | - K Oka
- Center for Biosciences and Informatics, Graduate School of Science and Technology, Keio University, Yokohama, Japan.
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Volkov ME, Volkov EM, Nurullin LF. Immunocytochemical identification of synaptotagmin 1, syntaxin 1, Ca2+ channel of the N-type, and nicotinic cholinoreceptor in motor neuromuscular junctions of somatic muscle of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2013. [DOI: 10.1134/s1990519x13010148] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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Volkov ME. Vital staining of nerve structures with fluorescent dyes and optical determination of acetylcholine in the somatic muscle of the earthworm Lumbricus terrestris. Bull Exp Biol Med 2013; 154:100-3. [PMID: 23330101 DOI: 10.1007/s10517-012-1885-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Experiments with fluorescent dyes showed that high concentrations of K(+) ions in the medium depolarize the membrane and enhance exo-endocytosis in nerve structures, which is accompanied by an increase in acetylcholine concentration in the somatic muscle of earthworm. In the presence of BAPTA and without Ca(2+) exo-endocytosis is sharply decelerated, the level of acetylcholine in the muscle decreases, but remains relatively high.
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Affiliation(s)
- M E Volkov
- Kazan State Medical University, Ministry of Health and Social Development of the Russian Federation, Russia.
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Khan MAQ, Khan MA, Hurlock P, Ahmed SA. Physiological responses to temperature and haeme synthesis modifiers in earthworm Lumbricus terrestris (Annelida: Oligochaeta). ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY 2012; 27:1-10. [PMID: 20725936 DOI: 10.1002/tox.20604] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2009] [Revised: 03/02/2010] [Accepted: 03/03/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Earthworms (Lumbricus terrestris) acclimated at 2° and 6°C above their average habitat temperature (10°C) had respectively 15 and 40% higher rate of respiration than those at habitat temperature. At 14°C, the rate of respiration and blood hemoglobin (Hb) concentration both increased by ∼60 and 50%, respectively, of the values at habitat temperature. At higher temperatures the rate of respiration and Hb synthesis started decreasing. At 20-23°C, the respiration and Hb concentration decreased respectively by about 85% and 35% of that at 14°C. Decrease in blood Hb concentration at higher temperatures appeared to be due to the lowering of the activity of blood enzyme δ-aminolaevulinic acid dehydratase (ALAD). Exposure of 20-23°C-acclimated pale worms to ALAD inhibitor (lead), lowered the already compromised rate of respiration and blood Hb concentration; while exposure to hexachlorobenzene (HCB, inducer of haeme synthesis) and ferric chloride (enhancer of haeme synthesis) did not overcome the inhibitory effect of high temperature on Hb synthesis. At 20-23°C the affinity of Hb for oxygen also decreased as indicated by the lowering of oxy-Hb (HbO) concentration in blood. The lowering of concentration of blood Hb and its affinity for oxygen may lower the amount of oxygen delivered to cells, which may limit the level of aerobic metabolism (glycolysis, oxidative phosphorylation), as indicated by an increase in blood glucose concentration and a decrease in in vitro activities of mitochondrial electron transport system components (ETS) namely NADH-cytochrome c reductase, succinate dehydrogenase, cytochrome c oxidase, and ATPases. Although the oxygen concentration in air, at sea level, does not decrease significantly from 6° to 20-23°C (lack of hypoxia), lowering of both Hb and HbO concentrations by high temperature may cause significant hypoxemia. The latter may lead to inhibition of the activity of muscle mitochondrial respiratory enzymes (ETS). The resulting inhibition of ATP synthesis and hydrolysis may cause deficit of energy needed for peristalsis/fictive locomotion of body and heart muscles (as indicated by a decrease in heart rate) to facilitate diffusion and transport of gases. The upper critical temperature (20-23°C) also slows down the heart rate and causes hyperosmotic stress (hypovolemia). Thus, a rise in soil temperature above 18°C, which inhibits Hb synthesis, Hb oxygenation, and mitochondrial ETS activity, and slows down the heart rate and causes hyperosmotic stress, can make this and higher temperatures lethal to populations of these earthworms, especially in the presence of metabolic inhibitors and respiratory poisons.
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Affiliation(s)
- M A Q Khan
- Northwest Suburban College, Rolling Meadows and Biological Sciences, University of Illinois at Chicago, 845 West Taylor Street, Chicago, IL 60607-7060, USA.
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Gong P, Basu N, Scheuhammer AM, Perkins EJ. Neurochemical and electrophysiological diagnosis of reversible neurotoxicity in earthworms exposed to sublethal concentrations of CL-20. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2010; 17:181-6. [PMID: 19274471 PMCID: PMC2801850 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-009-0117-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2008] [Accepted: 02/13/2009] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND, AIM, AND SCOPE Hexanitrohexaazaisowurtzitane (CL-20) is a relatively new energetic compound sharing some degree of structural similarity with hexahydro-1,3,5-trinitro-1,3,5-triazine (RDX), a known neurotoxic compound. Previously, we demonstrated using a noninvasive electrophysiological technique that CL-20 was a more potent neurotoxicant than RDX to the earthworm Eisenia fetida. In the present study, we investigated the effect of CL-20 exposure and subsequent recovery on muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs) to further define the mechanism of reversible neurotoxicity of CL-20 in E. fetida. MATERIALS AND METHODS We used a noninvasive electrophysiological technique to evaluate neurotoxicity in CL-20-treated worms, and then measured how such exposures altered levels of whole-body mAChR in the same animals. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION A good correlation exists between these two types of endpoints. Effect on mAChR levels was most prominent at day 6 of exposure. After 7 days of recovery, both conduction velocity and mAChR were significantly restored. Our results show that sublethal concentrations of CL-20 significantly reduced mAChR levels in a concentration- and duration-dependent manner, which was accompanied with significant decreases in the conduction velocity of the medial and lateral giant nerve fibers. After 7-day post exposure recovery, worms restored both neurochemical (mAChR) and neurophysiological (conduction velocity) endpoints that were reduced during 6-day exposures to CL-20 concentrations from 0.02 to 0.22 microg/cm(2). CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES Our findings support the idea that CL-20 induced neurotoxic effects are reversible, and suggest that CL-20 neurotoxicity may be mediated through the cholinergic system. Future studies will investigate other neurotransmission systems such as GABA, glutamate, and monoamine. Ion channels in the nerve membrane should be examined to further define the precise mechanisms underlying CL-20 neurotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ping Gong
- SpecPro Inc., 3909 Halls Ferry Road, Vicksburg, MS 39180, USA.
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Mizutani K, Shimoi T, Ogawa H, Kitamura Y, Oka K. Modulation of motor patterns by sensory feedback during earthworm locomotion. Neurosci Res 2004; 48:457-62. [PMID: 15041199 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2004.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2003] [Accepted: 01/05/2004] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Role of sensory feedback to motor pattern activity concerning locomotion in the earthworm, Eisenia fetida, was investigated. We have previously reported that bath application of octopamine induces fictive locomotion in the earthworm. In this study, we have examined the role of sensory feedback during fictive locomotion by analyzing electrical activities from the cut end and intact first lateral nerves of the ventral nerve cord (VNC). From the cut end recordings, motor activity associated with fictive locomotion was measured. A mixture of sensory and motor activities was measured from the intact first lateral nerve using en passant recordings, and sensory activity was separated by subtraction of the cut end recording (mainly motor activities) from the intact first lateral nerve recording. We estimated the effect of sensory feedback from the earthworm body wall by comparing recordings that made when the preparation was in-contact with a substrate or suspended above it. Motor pattern activities and the coefficient of variation for inter-spike-interval of motor outputs were increased under suspended conditions during circular muscle contraction. These results indicate that sensory feedback modulates the pattern of motor activity in the earthworm during locomotion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenji Mizutani
- School of Fundamental Science and Technology, Center for Life Science and Technology, Keio University, 3-14-1 Hiyoshi, Kohoku-ku, Yokohama 223-8522, Japan
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