Detection and quantification of cocoa butter equivalents in chocolate model systems: analysis of triglyceride profiles by high resolution GC

Chromatographic and spectroscopic methods for the detection of cocoa butter in cocoa and its derivatives: A review

Currently, there is fierce competition in the cocoa industry to develop products that possess distinctive sensory characteristics and flavours. This is because cocoa and its derivatives provide numerous health and functional advantages, which is essential to their economics. The fatty acid and triglyceride composition of cocoa determines its quality. This review emphasises the necessity of developing precise, adaptable analytical techniques to identify and quantify cocoa butter in cocoa and its derived products, from cocoa beans to chocolate bars. Key chromatographic and spectroscopic techniques play crucial roles in understanding the fundamental principles underlying the production of cocoa with desirable flavours. This significantly impacts the sustainability, traceability, and authenticity of cocoa products while also supporting the battle against adulteration.

Effect of tempered procedures on the crystallization behavior of different positions of cocoa butter products

The effects of tempered procedures (well and under-tempered) on the crystalline behaves of cocoa butter were elaborated through detecting crystalline structure and compositions of crystals located at different positions of cocoa butter products in this study. The under-tempered products couldn't form crystalline structures as uniform as the well-tempered ones, whose internal contained more low saturated triacylglycerol and structurally unstable crystals. The low saturated triacylglycerol further created the diverse microstructure and thermal properties between center and outer part of cocoa butter products. During storage, the concentration differences drive migration of low saturated triacylglycerol from center to outer part of the product. Although this reduces the differences in triacylglycerol composition, it results in the polymorphism conversion between β'-IV and β-VI form and the fat bloom formation. This work indicates that the monitor for crystalline properties of different positions in cocoa butter products helps the chocolate industry to control formation of fat bloom.

Facile lipase-catalyzed synthesis of a chocolate fat mimetic

A cocoa butter equivalent (CBE) was synthesized enzymatically from readily available edible fats with fatty acid and triacylglycerol compositions that closely resemble the fat present in chocolate, cocoa butter. A commercially available immobilized fungal lipase, Lipozyme RM IM, was used as the reaction catalyst. Reaction parameters were a temperature of 65 °C, water activity of 0.11, a 4 h reaction time, and a substrate mass ratio of a commercial enzymatically synthesized shea stearin (SS) to palm mid-fraction (PMF) of 6:4 (w/w). Fractionation was also used after reaction completion to further approach the triacylglycerol composition of cocoa butter by removing trisaturated and unsaturated triacylglycerols. The yield of the triglyceride 1-palmitoyl-2-oleoyl, 3-stearoyl-glycerol (POS) produced was 57.7% (w/w). The amounts of 1,3-dipalmitoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol (POP), (POS) and 1,3-stearoyl-2-oleoyl-glycerol (SOS) in the final CBE were 11.2%, 36.3%, and 34.8%, respectively. In comparison, the amounts of POP, POS and SOS in the cocoa butter used in this study were 15.2%, 38.2%, and 27.8%, respectively. No significant differences (P > 0.05) in melting point and enthalpy of fusion between CB and the CBE were observed. In comparison, a non-interesterified blend of SS and PMF (60:40 w/w) showed significantly (P < 0.05) higher melting point and lower enthalpy of fusion compared to CB. The crystal polymorphic form V of CB (β2-3L) was similar to that of CBE and SS/PMF (60:40 w/w). The solid fat content (SFC) vs. temperature profile of the CBE generally resembled that of CB, except that the CBE had significantly (P < 0.05) higher SFCs at 5, 10, 15, 20 and 25 °C compared to both CB and SS/PMF (60:40 w/w). Addition of 15% (w/w) CBE to CB did not cause any changes in physical properties (melting point, SFC and crystal polymorphic forms) of the CB. This study demonstrates the potential for synthesizing a CB-like CBE using a green, rapid, straightforward one step enzymatic conversion followed by fractionation from widely available edible fats.

Nutritional composition and fatty acids profile in cocoa beans and chocolates with different geographical origin and processing conditions

Nutritional composition and fatty acids (FA) profile were determined in cocoa and chocolates of different geographical origin and subject to different processing conditions. Cocoa butter was the major nutrient in cocoa beans and carbohydrates were the most important in chocolates. Cocoa composition and FA profile varied depending on geographical origin whilst in chocolates only carbohydrates and fat content varied significantly due to the effect of origin and no significant effect was observed for processing conditions. Both for cocoa and chocolates differences in FA profile were mainly explained as an effect of the geographical origin, and were not due to processing conditions in chocolate. For cocoa, differences in FA profile were found in C12:0, C14:0, C16:0, C16:1, C17:0, C17:1 and C18:0 whilst for chocolates only differences were found in C16:0, C18:0, C18:1 and C18:2. For all samples, C16:0, C18:0, C18:1 and C18:2 were quantitatively the most important FA. Ecuadorian chocolate showed a healthier FA profile having higher amounts of unsaturated FA and lower amounts of saturated FA than Ghanaian chocolate.

Regional variation in shea butter lipid and triterpene composition in four African countries

The triacylglycerol, fatty acid, and polycyclic triterpene compositions of shea butter were determined for 150 samples from the sub-Saharan countries of Mali, Burkina Faso, Nigeria, and Uganda. The compositional profiles showed high variability in all three classes of compounds. Shea butter is made up mainly of four triglycerides (TAG) differing in carbon number (CN) by two, starting from CN 50 to CN 56. The greatest source of variation was in the CN 54 TAG. Shea butter is characterized by 16 saturated and unsaturated fatty acids in greatly varying proportion, the major ones being the even homologues in the range of C(16)-C(20). Oleic acid is dominant in Ugandan provenances, whereas stearic acid is dominant in West African shea butter. Acetyl and cinnamyl polycyclic triterpene means for countries ranged from 3.69 to 12.57%, with the highest values found in Nigerian provenances. Statistical comparisons of fat composition show that the geographic distance between shea populations is reflected in the degree of separation of their chemical profiles.

Chromatography in authenticity and traceability tests of vegetable oils and dairy products: a review

The new applications of various chromatographic techniques such as gas-liquid chromatography, high-performance liquid chromatography and electrophoretic methods employed for the analysis in macro- and micro-components in vegetable oils and dairy products are compiled and critically evaluated. The employment of these methods for authenticity tests and traceability is discussed.

Alternative method for the quantification by gas chromatography triacylglycerol class analysis of cocoa butter equivalent added to chocolate bars

Directive 2000/36/EC allows chocolate makers to add up to 5% of only six specific cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) to cocoa butter (CB). A quantification method based on triacylglycerol (TAG) class analysis by gas chromatography with an unpolar column was set up for routine control purposes of chocolate bars. Mixtures of CBEs/CB were elaborated according to a Placket-Burman experiment design and analyzed by gas chromatography. A matrix was built with the normalized values of TAG classes (C50, C52, C54, and C56) of pure CBs of various origins, homemade CB/CBE mixtures (1 CB type), and mixtures containing CBE with CBs of various origins. A multivariate calibration equation was computed from this matrix using a partial least-squares regression technique. CBE addition can be detected at a minimum level of 2%, and the mathematical model allows its quantification with an uncertainty of 2% with respect to the cocoa butter fats. The model has also been applied for deconvolution and quantification of each CBE of a CBE mixture in chocolate bars.

Comparative study of matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization and gas chromatography for quantitative determination of cocoa butter and cocoa butter equivalent triacylglycerol composition

The triacylglycerol (TAG) composition study of cocoa butter (CB) and cocoa butter equivalents (CBEs) has been performed by gas chromatography (GC) and matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization time-of-flight mass spectrometry (MALDI-TOFMS). These two techniques provided comparable results. The advantage of the MALDI technique was the detection of each compound comprising the triacylglycerol classes (Cn). Moreover, comparison of the data obtained by these two techniques indicated that TAG relative percentages could be obtained quantitatively with the MALDI technique. These techniques have been applied for the composition determination of CB + CBE mixtures. Encouraging results showed that it is possible to quantify an admixture containing as little as 4% of CBE.

Characterization of cocoa butter and cocoa butter equivalents by bulk and molecular carbon isotope analyses: implications for vegetable fat quantification in chocolate

The fatty acids from cocoa butters of different origins, varieties, and suppliers and a number of cocoa butter equivalents (Illexao 30-61, Illexao 30-71, Illexao 30-96, Choclin, Coberine, Chocosine-Illipé, Chocosine-Shea, Shokao, Akomax, Akonord, and Ertina) were investigated by bulk stable carbon isotope analysis and compound specific isotope analysis. The interpretation is based on principal component analysis combining the fatty acid concentrations and the bulk and molecular isotopic data. The scatterplot of the two first principal components allowed detection of the addition of vegetable fats to cocoa butters. Enrichment in heavy carbon isotope ((13)C) of the bulk cocoa butter and of the individual fatty acids is related to mixing with other vegetable fats and possibly to thermally or oxidatively induced degradation during processing (e.g., drying and roasting of the cocoa beans or deodorization of the pressed fat) or storage. The feasibility of the analytical approach for authenticity assessment is discussed.

Comparison of HPLC and GLC techniques for the determination of the triglyceride profile of cocoa butter

Current methods for the authentication of cocoa butter (CB) are mainly based on a knowledge of its triglyceride (TG) composition. The performances of capillary GLC and nonaqueous HPLC with an evaporative light-scattering detector (ELSD) for the quantification of TG of CB of different geographical origins were compared. Use of capillary columns coated with a polarizable stationary phase or two reversed-phase HPLC columns coupled in series efficiently separated the major TG species contained in CB. The velocity of the GLC carrier gas influenced the FID response factors of TG standard compounds, which were linearly related to the retention times of the analytes studied. Within a certain mass range the ELSD response of standard TG solutions did not deviate from unity to a greater extent, independent of the molecular structure of the TG species. The quantities of individual TG as obtained by both methods were in close agreement, and the precisions of the methods were also of comparable magnitude, so that either method can be applied to assess the purity of CB. Capillary GLC has the advantage of higher sample throughput due to a shorter run time and because the consumption of chemicals is negligible.