Irradiation in carcinoma of the vulva: factors affecting outcome

Recommendations for the treatment of vulvar cancer in settings with limited resources: Report from the International Gynecological Cancer Society consensus meeting

Introduction

Due to scant literature and the absence of high-level evidence, the treatment of vulvar cancer is even more challenging in countries facing limited resources, where direct application of international guidelines is difficult. Recommendations from a panel of experts convened to address some of these challenges were developed.

Methods

The panel met in Rio de Janeiro in September 2019 during the International Gynecological Cancer Society congress and was composed of specialists from countries in Africa, Asia, Eastern Europe, Latin America, and the Middle East. The panel addressed 62 questions and provided recommendations for the management of early, locally advanced, recurrent, and/or metastatic vulvar cancer. Consensus was defined as at least 75% of the voting members selecting a particular recommendation, whereas a majority vote was considered when one option garnered between 50.0% and 74.9% of votes. Resource limitation was defined as any issues limiting access to qualified surgeons, contemporary imaging or radiation-oncology techniques, antineoplastic drugs, or funding for the provision of contemporary medical care.

Results

Consensus was reached for nine of 62 (14.5%) questions presented to the panel, whereas a majority vote was reached for 29 (46.7%) additional questions. For the remaining questions, there was considerable heterogeneity in the recommendations.

Conclusion

The development of guidelines focusing on areas of the world facing more severe resource limitations may improve medical practice and patient care.

Long-term outcomes of individualized management after sentinel lymph-node biopsy for vulvar cancer

BACKGROUND

The management for patients with vulvar cancer after sentinel lymph-node biopsy (SLNB) remains controversial. The aim of this study was to investigate the long-term outcomes of individualized management after SLNB for early stage vulvar cancer.

METHODS

The medical records of patients with vulvar cancer treated by surgery involving SLNB between 2004 and 2019 were retrospectively reviewed. During this period, the inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy (IL) were performed with individualized strategy, while the postoperative intensity-modulated radiotherapy was planned with a consistent policy.

RESULTS

We identified 138 patients with at least one sentinel node detected, of whom 64 underwent further IL while 74 had SLNB only. Nodal metastases (pN+) were confirmed in 22 patients with IL and 16 without. Radiotherapy was scheduled with the dose of 60-70 Gy for all pN+ patients and finally completed in 15 with IL and 15 without. The median follow-up time was 56 months (6-156 months). Recurrence was observed in 24 patients, of whom 10 were pN- at primary treatment. The 3-year overall survival (OS) was 97.2, 95.2, 68.3, and 71.8%; 3-year disease-free survival (DFS) was 94.5, 91.4, 60.2, and 59.2%, respectively, for patients with pN- and IL, pN- and SLNB, pN+ and IL, and pN+ and SLNB. Neither OS nor DFS showed significant difference between SLNB and IL in pN- (P = 0.564 for OS, P = 0.423 for DFS), or pN + patients (P = 0.920 for OS, P = 0.862 for DFS).

CONCLUSIONS

With appropriate adjuvant radiotherapy, SLNB alone provided similar long-term survival compared with IL for both patients with and without sentinel node metastasis.

Vulvar carcinoma: dilemma, debates, and decisions

Vulvar carcinoma is a rare and aggressive gynecological malignancy. It affects elderly females, with the mean age at diagnosis being 55-60 years. Regional metastasis to inguinal lymph nodes is common. There is a high incidence of pelvic node involvement, especially in those with pathologically positive inguinal nodes. Surgery appears to be the only curative treatment option in the early stages of the disease. But in most patients, surgery is associated with considerable morbidities and psychosexual issues. Hence, in the quest for a less morbid form of treatment, multimodality approaches with various combinations of surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy have been suggested for advanced vulvar cancers. Due to the low incidence of the disease, the level of evidence for the success of these treatment modalities is poor. In countries like India, a heterogeneous incidence of vulvar carcinoma exists across the country, with patients presenting at advanced stages when the option of surgery is often supplemented or replaced by chemotherapy and radiotherapy. In this review, we attempt to study the available published literature and trials and discuss the treatment options in various stages of vulvar carcinoma.

Adjuvant Radiotherapy in High-Risk Squamous Cell Carcinoma of the Vulva: A Two-Institutional Italian Experience

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to assess the treatment benefit and patterns of recurrence for patients with high-risk vulvar squamous cell carcinoma treated with surgery followed by adjuvant radiotherapy (RT).

PATIENTS AND METHODS

From January 1999 to June 2016, 51 patients underwent total or partial deep vulvectomy with inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy followed by adjuvant RT with 45-50 Gy in 25 fractions +/- a 4-10 Gy boost. 17 (33.3%) women received concomitant chemotherapy.

RESULTS

Median overall survival was 81 months. The 5-year disease-free survival and overall survival rates were 52 and 63%, respectively. In univariate and multivariate analysis, patients aged ≤ 76 years and those receiving an RT total dose of > 54 Gy had a significantly lower risk of progression (p = 0.044 and 0.045; p = 0.012 and 0.018, respectively) and death (p = 0.015 and 0.011; p = 0.015 and 0.026, respectively). There was a trend towards a lower risk of progression for patients with tumor size ≤ 4 (p = 0.098) and negative lymphovascular space involvement (p = 0.080). Also, there was a trend towards a higher risk of death (p = 0.075) for grade 3 tumors. Concomitant chemotherapy provided no significant benefit.

CONCLUSION

Only age and RT total dose are significant prognostic variables for squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva treated with primary surgery and adjuvant RT to improve local and locoregional control.

Intensity modulated radiation therapy for squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva: Treatment technique and outcomes

OBJECTIVE

The objective of this study was to present the treatment technique and evaluate clinical outcomes after intensity modulated radiation therapy (IMRT) for vulvar cancer.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

This retrospective study included 39 patients with squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva treated with IMRT from 2005 to 2015. There were 21 patients treated with postoperative IMRT, 13 with definitive IMRT, and 5 with preoperative IMRT. Tumor staging was Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics stage I in 6, stage II in 7, stage III in 19, and stage IV in 7 patients. Concurrent chemotherapy was administered to 14 patients. Brachytherapy was delivered in 8 patients.

RESULTS

The median follow-up was 34 months (range, 3.3-71). Median IMRT dose to patients receiving pre- or postoperative IMRT was 5040 cGy (range, 5040-6080). Median combined IMRT and brachytherapy dose to gross tumor was 7000 cGy (range, 5040-7520) in those treated with definitive RT. The 3-year locoregional control (LRC) and overall survival for those receiving postoperative RT were 89% and 67%, respectively. The 3-year LRC and overall survival for those receiving definitive IMRT were 42% and 49%, respectively. In patients receiving definitive or neoadjuvant IMRT, 69% had complete clinical response and 44% had complete pathologic response. The actuarial 3-year inguinal recurrence rate was 7%. There were no acute grade 3-4 hematological, gastrointestinal, or genitourinary toxicities. There were no late grade 3-4 gastrointestinal or genitourinary toxicities.

CONCLUSIONS

IMRT for vulvar cancer is associated with high rates of LRC in the postoperative setting and limited radiation-related toxicity. Durable LRC of disease after definitive IMRT remains challenging, and several refinements to our treatment technique are suggested.

Brachytherapy as part of the conservative treatment for primary and recurrent vulvar carcinoma

PURPOSE

There are only scarce data on the place of brachytherapy (BT) for treatment of vulvar carcinoma. Our institutional experience of interstitial BT for vulvar carcinoma patients is reported.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Clinical records of patients receiving low-dose-rate or pulsed-dose-rate BT as part of the primary treatment for primary/recurrent vulvar squamous cell carcinoma or as part of postoperative treatment between 2000 and 2015 were included. Patients, tumors, and treatment characteristics as well as clinical outcome were examined.

RESULTS

A total of 26 patients treated with BT were identified. BT was delivered as part of primary intent treatment for locally advanced/recurrent cancer in 11 patients and as part of postoperative treatment in 15 patients. Median age at time of BT was 63 years (range, 41-88 years). Pulsed-dose-rate and low-dose-rate were used in 15 patients and 11 patients, respectively. BT was performed as a boost to the tumor bed following external beam radiotherapy (n = 13) or as the sole irradiation modality (n = 13). Total median dose at the level of primary tumor was 60 GyEQD2 (range, 55-60 GyEQD2). With mean followup of 41 months (range, 5 months-11.3 years), 11 patients experienced tumor relapse, and in two of them, site of relapse was only local. Three-year estimated disease-free survival and overall survival rates were 57% (95% confidence interval: 45-69%) and 81% (95% confidence interval: 72-90%), respectively. All toxicities were Grade 2 or less.

CONCLUSIONS

Interstitial BT used as part of the primary or postoperative treatment of vulvar carcinoma is feasible with a satisfactory toxicity profile. Prognosis remains, however, dismal, with a high frequency of failures in patients with locally advanced tumors.

Prognostic factors in patients with vulvar cancer treated with primary surgery: a single-center experience

Vulvar cancer is a relatively rare disease. The aim of this study was to investigate prognostic factors in vulvar squamous cell carcinoma patients treated with primary surgery. Forty cases of vulvar squamous cell carcinoma treated with primary surgery were retrospectively analyzed. Overall survival (OS) and disease-specific survival (DSS) were calculated using the Kaplan–Meier method and prognostic factors were analyzed by multivariate analyses. The median age was 68 years. The FIGO stage distribution was as follows: 18 cases (45.0 %) in stage I, four cases (10.0 %) in stage II, 15 cases (37.5 %) in stage III, and three cases (7.5 %) in stage IV. A radical local excision was performed in 15 patients, and radical vulvectomy in 25 patients, and seven of these patients were treated with postoperative RT. The 5-year DSS rate was 72.6 %, and the 5-year OS rate was 70.3 %. Age and surgical margin ≤5 mm were independent prognostic factors for OS, and positive inguinal LN metastasis and surgical margin ≤5 mm were identified as independent prognostic factors for DSS. Complete radical excision is important regardless of operation mode. Adjuvant treatment should be considered for inguinal LN positive patients.

Adjuvant radiotherapy for vulvar cancer with close or positive surgical margins

BACKGROUND

The survival effect of adjuvant radiotherapy (RT) for vulvar cancer has been poorly investigated.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

We performed a multicentre retrospective register study of 257 patients with primary squamous vulvar cancer. The survival effect of adjuvant RT was investigated in two groups of patients, dependent on surgical margins. The outcome measure was overall survival. All statistical tests were two-sided.

RESULTS

Of the 257 patients investigated, 192 had negative resection margins, while positive and/or close surgical margins were observed in 65 cases. Margin status was associated with unfavourable overall survival. The five-year overall survival was 66.1 and 49.2% in patients with negative and positive/close resection margins, respectively. Adjuvant RT directed to the vulva was associated with improved survival in patients with positive/close resection margins but not in patients with negative surgical margins. The 5-year overall survival of patients with positive/close surgical margins without RT was 29%, whereas with RT it increased to 67.6%. Notably, patients with positive/close surgical margins who received RT of the vulva had a 5-year survival rate similar to the patients with negative margins (67.6%). Multivariate analysis adjusted for age, stage of disease, tumour grade and lymph node metastases showed that adjuvant RT significantly reduced the mortality risk in patients with positive/close resection margins (HR 0.36, CI 0.14–0.94, p = 0.038). In the group of patients with negative resection margins, the involvement of lymph nodes was the strongest unfavourable prognostic factor.

CONCLUSIONS

Adjuvant RT should be used for patients with positive/close surgical margins to improve their outcome.

Use of the Sentinel Lymph Node Technique Compared to Complete Inguino-femoral Lymph Node Removal in Patients with Invasive Vulvar Cancer in Germany

In the current S2 guidelines, the standard surgical therapy for patients with vulvar cancer also includes inguino-femoral lymphadenectomy. However, in view of the severe side-effects associated with this approach such as problems with wound healing, lymphoceles and lymphoedema, the search is on for alternative treatments that could decrease treatment-associated morbidity and improve patients' quality of life, particularly for node-negative patients. The sentinel lymph node technique is currently the gold standard in the treatment of unifocal breast cancer (clinically negative axilla), and studies on the use of this technique in the treatment of vulvar cancer are promising. To date, the diagnostic accuracy of this method in vulvar cancer has only been evaluated in a single, one-arm, non-randomised, multicentre study. In preparation for a multicentre study, in 2010 we surveyed 41 German hospitals to investigate how often they used the sentinel lymph node technique compared to inguino-femoral lymphadenectomy. The hospitals were grouped according to hospital size and number of patients treated for vulvar cancer. The decision criteria to determine the type of procedure performed were also investigated. Finally, the hospitals were asked whether they would be willing to participate in a prospective clinical study to evaluate the sentinel lymph node technique in patients with vulvar cancer. The majority of surgeons questioned (73 %) already had some experience with this technique in patients with vulvar cancer. In our survey, 27 % of hospitals carried out inguino-femoral lymphadenectomy, 10 % used the sentinel lymph node technique, and 63 % used both methods. In 24 % of hospitals, the standard procedure consisted of the sentinel lymph node technique supplemented by inguino-femoral lymphadenectomy. Only 20 % of the institutions surveyed in our study carried out sentinel lymph node biopsy alone in accordance with the criteria of the consensus recommendations. The majority of the investigated institutions were willing to participate in a randomised prospective clinical study to evaluate the effectiveness of sentinel lymph node sampling in patients with vulvar cancer.

Prognostic analysis of early-stage squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva

Aim

The aim of this study was to analyze prognostic factors of early-stage squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva.

Methods

A retrospective analysis was conducted on 35 patients who were treated for early-stage squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva at Sun Yat-sen University Cancer Center from January 1980 to December 2005. The Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS) was used to compare the different strategies of operation and to analyze the prognostic factors.

Results

Thirty-five patients had early-stage squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva. Of these cases, 26 were well differentiated, seven were moderately differentiated, and two were poorly differentiated. The five-year survival rate was 77.1%. Five cases were in FIGO stage 1a and 30 cases were in stage 1b; median survival times were 182.3 months and 152.5 months, and the five-year survival rates were 100% and 81.5% (P >0.05), respectively. The five-year survival of the patients who underwent local excision; radical vulvectomy and en bloc resection of inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy; orradical vulvectomyen bloc resection of inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy, and pelvic lymph nodes was 50%, 81.8%, and 83.9%, respectively. For these cases, 74.3% of the tumors were medial while 25.7% were lateral, and the five-year survival rates of patients according to tumor location were 87.0% and 64.8% (P <0.05), respectively. The inguinal lymph node not increased and active were 16 cases (45.7%), and increased, active and hard were 17 cases (48.6%), and syncretic were two cases (5.7%), five-year survival rates were 73.3%, 92.9% and 50% (P <0.05), respectively. Of these cases, 74.3% of the tumors were cauliflower-like and 25.7% were nodular; five-year survival rates by tumor type were 91.3% and 66.7% (P <0.05), respectively.

Conclusions

For patients with early-stage squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva, surgical operation is the primary, yet the best, treatment. The related prognostic factors were tumor location (lateral/medial), stage, gross morphology, and clinical state of the inguinal lymph node.

Risk factors for short- and long-term complications after groin surgery in vulvar cancer

Background:

The cornerstone of treatment in early-stage squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the vulva is surgery, predominantly consisting of wide local excision with elective uni- or bi-lateral inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy. This strategy is associated with a good prognosis, but also with impressive treatment-related morbidity. The aim of this study was to determine risk factors for the short-term (wound breakdown, infection and lymphocele) and long-term (lymphoedema and cellulitis/erysipelas) complications after groin surgery as part of the treatment of vulvar SCC.

Methods:

Between January 1988 and June 2009, 164 consecutive patients underwent an inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy as part of their surgical treatment for vulvar SCC at the Department of Gynaecologic Oncology at the Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre. The clinical and histopathological data were retrospectively analysed.

Results:

Multivariate analysis showed that older age, diabetes, ‘en bloc’ surgery and higher drain production on the last day of drain in situ gave a higher risk of developing short-term complications. Younger age and lymphocele gave higher risk of developing long-term complications. Higher number of lymph nodes dissected seems to protect against developing any long-term complications.

Conclusion:

Our analysis shows that patient characteristics, extension of surgery and postoperative management influence short- and/or long-term complications after inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy in vulvar SCC patients. Further research of postoperative management is necessary to analyse possibilities to decrease the complication rate of inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy; although the sentinel lymph node procedure appears to be a promising technique, in ∼50% of the patients an inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy is still indicated.

Primary groin irradiation versus primary groin surgery for early vulvar cancer

BACKGROUND

Despite changes in technique, morbidity after surgery for vulvar cancer is high and mainly related to the groin dissection. Primary radiotherapy to the groin is expected to result in lower morbidity. However, studies on the efficacy of primary radiotherapy to the groin in terms of groin recurrences and survival show conflicting results.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether the effectiveness and safety of primary radiotherapy to the inguinofemoral lymph nodes in early vulvar cancer is comparable with surgery.

SEARCH STRATEGY

We searched The Cochrane Gynaecological Cancer Group Specialised Register, Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL), MEDLINE and EMBASE from 1966 to July 2010.

SELECTION CRITERIA

We selected randomised clinical trials (RCTs) comparing inguinofemoral lymph node dissection and primary radiotherapy of the inguinofemoral lymph nodes for patients with early squamous cell cancer of the vulva.

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently assessed study quality and extracted results. Primary outcome measures were the incidence of groin recurrences, patient survival and morbidity.

MAIN RESULTS

No new RCTs were identified by the updated search. Out of twelve identified papers only one met the selection criteria. From this one small RCT of 52 women, there was a trend towards increased groin recurrence rates (relative risk (RR) 10.21, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.59 to 175.78), lower disease-specific survival rates (RR 3.70, 95% CI 0.87 to 15.80), less lymphoedema (RR 0.06, 95% CI 0.00 to 1.03) and fewer life-threatening cardiovascular complications (RR 0.08, 95% CI 0.00 to 1.45) in the radiotherapy group. Primary surgery was associated with a longer hospital stay than primary groin irradiation (RR 0.28, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.58).

AUTHORS' CONCLUSIONS

Primary radiotherapy to the groin results in less morbidity but may be associated with a higher risk of groin recurrence and decreased survival when compared with surgery. Due to the small numbers in this trial and criticisms regarding the depth of radiotherapy applied, corroboration of these findings by larger RCTs using a standardised radiotherapy method, is desirable. However, until better evidence is available, surgery should be considered the first choice treatment for the groin nodes in women with vulvar cancer. Individual patients not physically able to withstand surgery may be treated with primary radiotherapy.

Adenoid cystic carcinoma of the Bartholin's gland: a rare tumor unmarked by persistent vulvar pain in a postmenopausal woman

INTRODUCTION

Adenoid cystic carcinoma (ACC) of the Bartholin's gland is a rare malignancy characterized by slow growth, local invasion and perineural infiltration.

CASE

A 64-year-old postmenopausal woman presented with persistent vulvar pain. Local examination revealed a 2 x 2 cm painful vulvar nodule. Nodule was excised and ACC originating in the Bartholin's gland with positive resection margin was determined in pathological examination. We performed hemivulvectomy and ipsilateral inguinal lymph node dissection. Pathology showed that the resection margins were free of tumor and there was no lymph node metastasis.

DISCUSSION

In cases of persistent vulvar pain without swelling, complete vulvovaginal evaluation should be done to prevent delay in diagnosis of Bartholin's gland cancer. Treatment modality must be tailored to each patient, though there is no consensus on the treatment.

Surgery and radiotherapy in vulvar cancer

The majority of patients with vulvar cancer have squamous cell carcinomas (SCC). The cornerstone of the treatment is surgery. Radical vulvectomy with "en bloc" inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy has led to a favorable prognosis but with impressive morbidity. Nowadays, treatment is more individualized with wide local excision with uni- or bilateral inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy via separate incisions as the standard treatment for early stage patients with SCC of the vulva with depth of invasion >1 mm without suspicious groins. In case of more than one intranodal lymph node metastasis and/or extranodal growth, postoperative radiotherapy on the groins and pelvis is warranted. Until now there is a limited role for primary radiotherapy on the vulva and/or groins in early stage disease. The sentinel lymph node (SLN) procedure with the combined technique (preoperative lymphoscintigraphy with a radioactive tracer and intraoperative blue dye) is a promising staging technique for patients with early stage vulvar cancer. The safety of clinical implementation of the SLN procedure and the role of additional histopathological techniques of the SLNs need to be further investigated before its wide-scale application. Patients with advanced vulvar cancer are difficult to treat. One of the problems in patients with locally advanced vulvar cancer is the high incidence of concomitant bulky lymph nodes in the groin(s). Ultraradical surgery in case of resectable disease will lead to impressive morbidity because of the exenterative-type procedure. (Chemo)radiation with or without surgery should be regarded as the first choice for patients with locally advanced vulvar cancer only when primary surgery will necessitate performance of a stoma. Further studies are needed to determine the optimal combined modality treatment in these patients. Due to the fact that vulvar cancer is a rare disease, further clinical studies will only be possible, when international collaborative groups will join forces in order to perform clinical trials, in which different treatment options such as SLN procedure, primary radiotherapy on the groins and multimodality treatment for advanced disease will be investigated.

Management of vulvar cancers

AIM

The radical surgical approach in the treatment of vulvar cancer patients has led to a favorable prognosis for the majority of the patients with early stage squamous cell cancer. However, the morbidity is impressive, leading to more individualized treatment. The aim of this review is to give an overview of the management of vulvar cancer.

METHODS

We have reviewed the literature on the modifications in treatment of vulvar cancer with the emphasis on surgery and radiotherapy for primary disease.

RESULTS

While surgery is the cornerstone of treatment for early stage squamous cell vulvar cancer (with wide local excision and uni- or bilateral inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy via separate incisions as standard treatment), until now there has been a limited role for primary radiotherapy although this may be an attractive alternative for the inguinofemoral lymphadenectomy in the future. The sentinel lymph node procedure with the combined technique (preoperative lymphoscintigraphy with (99m)technetium-labeled nanocolloid and Patente Blue) is a promising staging technique for patients with vulvar cancer. The clinical implementation of the sentinel lymph node procedure and the role of additional histopathological techniques of the sentinel lymph nodes have to be investigated. In advanced vulvar cancer, chemoradiation followed by surgery should be regarded as the treatment of first choice for these patients.

CONCLUSIONS

Due to the rarity of vulvar cancer it is quite clear that further studies will have to be performed by international collaborative groups. The sentinel lymph node procedure and primary radiotherapy are promising methods to reduce morbidity of treatment, but their safety needs to be studied in clinical trials.

Clinical implication of laparoscopic pelvic lymphadenectomy in patients with vulvar cancer and positive groin nodes

OBJECTIVE

At present, no clear guidelines for the treatment of patients with vulvar cancer and positive groin nodes exist. In general, the decision for additional pelvic radiation is based on findings by imaging techniques and/or the number of groin nodes involved. The aim of this case series was to demonstrate that histologic result of laparoscopic removed pelvic lymph nodes can be used to select patients who should not undergo pelvic irradiation.

METHODS

From July 1997 to October 2004, 12 consecutive patients with primary or recurrent vulvar cancer underwent laparoscopic pelvic lymphadenectomy following primary or secondary surgical treatment.

RESULTS

There were 8 patients with primary cancer of the vulva and 4 patients with recurrent disease in the inguinal and/or pelvic lymph nodes. The mean age was 61 (26-83) years and the mean body-mass-index was 27.1 (20.8-36.6). Positive groin nodes were found in five patients on the right side and in five patients on the left side; in one patient, positive groin nodes were present in both sides. In another patient with a history of vulvar cancer and positive groin nodes the CT-scan indicated the presence of positive iliac and paraaortic lymph nodes. Only in two patients tumor involved lymph nodes were diagnosed by laparoscopic pelvic lymphadenectomy (one left-sided, one right-sided). The number of harvested pelvic lymph nodes was 13.7 (5-20) in unilateral and 27.8 (16-37) in bilateral lymphadenectomy. The histologic examination of removed pelvic lymph nodes confirmed pelvic radiation in only 2 out of 12 patients, whereas 10 patients were spared from whole pelvis irradiation.

CONCLUSION

With respect to small sample size, laparoscopic lymphadenectomy seems to be a good tool to avoid unnecessary pelvic radiation in patients with vulvar cancer and confirmed positive groin nodes.

Irradiation of the inguinal lymph nodes in patients of differing body habitus: A comparison of techniques and resulting normal tissue complication probabilities

The treatment of the inguinal lymph nodes with radiotherapy is strongly influenced by the body habitus of the patient. The effect of 7 radiotherapy techniques on femoral head doses was studied. Three female patients of differing body habitus (ectomorph, mesomorph, endomorph) were selected. Radiation fields included the pelvis and contiguous inguinal regions and were representative of fields used in the treatment of cancers of the lower pelvis. Seven treatment techniques were compared. In the ectomorph and mesomorph, normal tissue complication probability (NTCP) for the femoral heads was lowest with use of anteroposterior (AP) and modified posteroanterior (PA) field with inguinal electron field supplements (technique 1). In the endomorph, NTCP was lowest with use of AP and modified PA field without electron field supplements (technique 2) or a 4-field approach (technique 6). Technique 1 for ectomorphs and mesomorphs and techniques 2 and 6 for endomorphs were optimal techniques for providing relatively homogeneous dose distributions within the target area while minimizing the dose to the femoral heads.

Radiotherapy and chemoradiotherapy for carcinoma of the vulva

Radiotherapy may be used in the treatment of vulval cancer as an alternative to surgery in unfit patients, as an adjuvant to surgery in patients with poor prognosis tumours and for the treatment of inoperable, recurrent and metastatic disease. High-energy X-rays, electrons and both superficial mould and interstitial brachytherapy may be integrated in the regimen to produce the maximum tumour control and minimum morbidity. Concomitant chemoradiotherapy has a high response rate and may be used before surgery to reduce the morbidity of otherwise sphincter-sacrificing procedures. This chapter presents the historical development of radiotherapy for vulval cancer, the role of radiotherapy in the treatment of the primary tumour and also the loco-regional nodes, both for prophylaxis and for proven node metastasis. Techniques for delivering radiotherapy are then discussed and are followed by protocols detailing radiotherapy and chemotherapy doses for different clinical situations.

Squamous-cell carcinoma of the vulva: locally advanced disease

About 30-40% of vulvar cancers present with International Federation of Gynecology and Obstetrics (FIGO) (clinical) stage III or IV disease. Although surgical staging was introduced by FIGO in 1988 and hard data on this system are still relatively few, a review of our own patients suggests that this percentage of patients with advanced stage vulvar cancer probably still holds. We have considered carcinoma of the vulva to be locally advanced when the primary or recurring tumour cannot be locally managed by a radical vulvar resection. Current approaches to the treatment of locally advanced vulvar cancer include ultraradical surgery, radiotherapy, chemo-radiotherapy and a combination of treatment modalities. This chapter reviews the current approaches to the treatment of locally advanced vulvar cancer.

Pelvic exenteration

Pelvic exenterations are the most extensive surgeries performed for patients with gynecologic cancer, and the surgical team and patients have to be fully aware of the many issues that come into the discussion. This article discusses the history, indications, surgical techniques, and complications of pelvic exenteration.

Primary groin irradiation vs primary groin surgery for early vulvar cancer

BACKGROUND

Despite changes in technique, morbidity after surgical treatment for vulvar cancer is considerable and mainly related to the groin dissection. Primary radiotherapy to the groin is expected to result in lower morbidity. However, studies on the efficacy of primary radiotherapy for the groins in terms of groin recurrences and survival show conflicting results.

OBJECTIVES

To determine whether the effectiveness and safety of primary radiotherapy to the inguino-femoral lymph nodes is comparable with surgery

SEARCH STRATEGY

The literature search was carried out using the criteria set by the Cochrane Gynaecological Cancer Group. A MEDLINE and EMBASE search using the Mesh Heading 'vulvar neoplasms' and textword 'vulva' was performed. Publications on the effectiveness of primary radiotherapy treatment of early squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva were selected.

TYPE OF STUDY

Randomized clinical trials, case-control and observational studies of primary radiotherapy of the groin Type of participants: Patients with early squamous cell cancer of the vulva Type of interventions: inguino-femoral lymph node dissection and primary radiotherapy of the inguino-femoral lymph nodes. Type of outcome measurements: incidence of groin recurrences, survival and morbidity

DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

Two reviewers independently assessed study quality and extracted results

MAIN RESULTS

Out of nine reviewed papers only three met the selection criteria. From these studies, (one randomised controlled trial [RCT] one case-control and one observational study) it became clear from the RCT that the incidence of groin recurrences after primary radiotherapy is higher compared with surgery. survival was also worse in the radiotherapy group. The other two studies showed a higher than expected number of groin recurrences after primary radiotherapy. Morbidity after primary radiotherapy was lower compared with surgery. The conclusion of the RCT was criticized on the grounds of the depth of the radiotherapy administered. The depth of 3 cm used in the RCT, is too shallow to administer an optimal dose to the deeper groin nodes.

REVIEWER'S CONCLUSIONS

As shown in an RCT, primary radiotherapy to the groin results in less morbidity but also in a higher number of groin recurrences compared with surgery. Although the technique of radiotherapy in the RCT was criticized, other uncontrolled data do not give evidence for a similar or better groin control for radiotherapy when compared to surgery. This means that surgery is still to be considered the cornerstone of therapy for the groin nodes in women with vulvar cancer. Individual patients not fit enough to withstand surgery can be treated with primary radiotherapy.

Renal allograft autotransplantation before pelvic irradiation

The anatomical location of a renal allograft places the kidney in jeopardy during radiation therapy of pelvic and perineal malignancies. Alternative choices include avoiding irradiation, altering the dose, or excluding the graft from the field of radiation, with the risk of compromising the efficacy of the treatment. Transplantation of the graft out of the field of irradiation is another option. We describe the management, by allograft autotransplantation, of a renal transplant patient with an invasive carcinoma of the vulva for which postoperative inguinopelvic radiotherapy was advocated. This report underlines the technical difficulties encountered during reoperation on an allograft and the need for versatility in vascular and urologic reconstructions. With these reservations, autotransplantation permits the recovery of a normal renal function and is an option to consider in the salvage of a kidney transplant.

Long-term impact of postoperative radiotherapy in carcinoma of the vulva FIGO I/II

PURPOSE

Between 1953 and 1978, postoperative radiotherapy was used as an adjuvant therapy for carcinoma of the vulva that had not been treated with radical vulvectomy. We evaluated long-term results and possible prognostic factors.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

Ninety-two patients were treated. Surgical procedures were simple vulvectomy, electrocoagulation, or local excision. Radiotherapy doses to the vulva ranged from 0 to 90 Gy. All patients received radiotherapy to the inguinal lymph nodes, ranging from 30 to 60 Gy. Thirty-year retrospective follow-up was done evaluating the records and statistical survival rates.

RESULTS

Five-year actuarial survival rates in T1 patients were 71% (77% cause-specific survival rate), for T2 patients 43% (48% cause-specific survival rate). The difference between T1 and T2 patients was significant (p < 0.05). Patients with tumors of the labia minora had a significantly higher survival rate than those with different sites affected. Doses of 45 Gy or more to the vulva were sufficient to increase the 5-year cause-specific survival rate from 55% to 88%. The results in three subgroups were analyzed, group 1 having received electrocoagulation, but no radiotherapy of the vulva; group 2, local excision and doses of 40 Gy to the vulva; group 3, local excision and doses of 60 Gy to the vulva. There was a significant effect on 10-year cause-specific survival rates: 48% in group 1, 11% in group 2, and 88% in group 3. In multivariate analysis, the significant independent factors were T classification, tumor sites and-with only marginal significance-radiation doses to the vulva.

CONCLUSIONS

The prognosis in early vulva carcinoma after nonradical surgery primarily depends on T classification and the site of the primary tumor. With univariate analyses, the dose has a significant effect on survival. In multivariate analyses the dose is a marginal independent factor in the whole group of patients. After nonradical surgery of early vulva carcinoma, the vulva should be irradiated resulting in better long-term survival.

Vulvar carcinoma

Carcinoma of the vulva is an uncommon gynecologic malignancy primarily affecting postmenopausal women. The lesion is most commonly associated with HPV DNA, although, for many, a defined preinvasive to invasive connection is not readily apparent. Most patients experience symptoms of pruritus, irritation, and even pain for weeks or months before the diagnostic biopsy is performed. Patient embarrassment and unfamiliarity and reluctance on the part of the physician to fully evaluate these symptoms add to the delay. Vulvar carcinoma is staged surgically following resection. A concerted effort to conserve as much normal tissue as possible has been the focus of recent investigation. Separate incision resection of the vulvar mass and groin has improved wound healing and quality of life for many patients. The effect these conservative procedures have on long-term survival is currently being evaluated. Increased use of radiation therapy or chemoradiation has allowed organ preservation in many otherwise exenterative cases. In some instances, this neoadjuvant therapy has provided an opportunity to surgically clear otherwise unresectable lesions. Current radiotherapy techniques might also be as effective as groin dissection in certain low-risk patients. Adjuvant radiation and chemoradiation improve local control and reduce groin recurrence risk. In addition, patients with histologically positive groins enjoy longer survival when the pelvis is also treated. Selected use of multimodality therapy will likely extend the lives of women with vulvar cancer.

Radiation treatment in recurrent squamous cell cancer of the vulva

PURPOSE

To evaluate the treatment and outcome of recurrent vulvar cancer.

METHODS AND MATERIALS

In a retrospective review of 26 women referred to the department of radiation oncology between 1982 and 1995, patient records were analyzed with respect to the findings at original surgery, the time to locoregional recurrence, the location of the recurrence, and the subsequent management and outcome.

RESULTS

Sixteen recurrences were managed with a combination of surgery and radiotherapy, and the remainder with radiation treatment, combined with chemotherapy in some cases. The overall survival for the entire cohort at 5 years was 22%. The 5-year survival for those with recurrence confined to the vulva (n = 13) was 46%, compared with 0% for those women with a recurrence located or extending beyond the vulva (p = 0.002). The local control rate was 34.6%.

CONCLUSION

Our results confirm the poor overall prognosis for this condition. In particular, they highlight the importance of the location of the recurrence as a prognostic indicator. Based on this review, we conclude that radiotherapy fields should encompass the region at risk if the intent is curative. Finally, low-dose palliation for groin node recurrence is ineffectual.

Radiation treatment related factors influencing outcome in vulvar cancer patients

The objective of this research is to identify the impact of radiation treatment factors on survival in vulvar cancer patients. We performed a follow-up study on 60 women with squamous cell carcinoma of the vulva treated at the Department of Radiotherapy of the University of Ulm from 1980 to 1997. The follow-up time ranged from 0.5 to 17 years (mean 6.5 years). The irradiated volume included vulva and regional lymph nodes. The influence of treatment factors (tumor resection versus no tumor resection, treatment time, dose) on overall and disease-free survival was examined. In addition, applied doses were corrected for treatment time using the extended alpha/beta-model for calculating the biologically effective doses. The applied dose was 48.1 +/- 13.2 Gy (median: 50 Gy). Treatment time was 40.4 +/- 19.4 days (median: 38 days). 34/60 patients underwent surgery with complete resection of macroscopic tumor. 26 of 60 patients were resected incompletely or only a biopsy was taken. In univariate analysis prognostic factors influencing overall and disease-free survival were, along with T- and N-stage, treatment time, and biologically effective dose. In multivariate analysis, biologically effective dose was the only significant factor. We conclude that biologically effective dose and treatment time are important treatment factors influencing overall and disease-free survival vulvar cancer patients.