Can nanofiltration be fully predicted by a model?

Experimental and Modeling Study of the Nanofiltration of Alcohol-Based Molecules and Amino Acids by Commercial Membranes

The nanofiltration performance of three commercial membranes was analyzed by the Steric Pore Model (SPM) and the extended Nernst-Planck diffusion equation inside membrane pores. The model was completed with the equation to predict the concentration polarization, and the mass transfer coefficient was determined by considering the presence of a feed spacer. The model parameters that characterized the performance of the membrane were the hydrodynamic coefficient, which accounts for the possible variations in solute size and membrane pore radius, the effective membrane thickness, and the water permeability coefficient. All experiments were conducted at fixed feed pH of 6. The rejections of uncharged solutes (glucose for membranes with a high molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) and glycerol and ethylene glycol for membranes with a low MWCO) allowed the model parameters to be determined. We found that glycerol and ethylene glycol overestimate the membrane pore radius due to their ability to interact with the membrane matrix. Therefore, the rejection of glycine as a small amino acid was explored to characterize the membranes with low MWCO since these molecules do not interact with the membrane matrix and have an almost zero charge at pH values between 4.5 and 6.5. Based on the experimental rejections, it was stated that glucose and glycine could be separated by these membranes operating in continuous diafiltration mode.

Screening and Scale-up of Nanofiltration Membranes for Concentration of Lactose and Real Whey Permeate

In dairy industry huge quantities of whey accumulate as a by-product. In particular the containing lactose was not produced profitably in the past. Thus, the trend goes towards modification and sustainable use of lactose for which a concentration step is required. Nanofiltration (NF) has shown to be a good choice since partial demineralization can be realized in parallel. Therefore, in this study, 10 commercial polymer NF membranes were studied in detail and systematically for their suitability to concentrate lactose, with the proviso of high flux and high to complete rejection. Preliminary trials were conducted with flat-sheet membranes and a lactose model solution and the influence of transmembrane pressure (TMP), temperature and lactose concentration was studied. Finally, results were evaluated by using spiral wound modules and real industrial whey permeate. The results offered that a membrane screening is essentially since no correlation between molecular weight cut-off (MWCO) and permeate flow could be found. The conclusions found for the lactose model solution were in good agreement with the whey permeate, but as the ions contribute to the osmotic pressure of the feed the deviations increase in the course of concentration since ions are also partly retained.

Nanofiltration Membrane Characterization and Application: Extracting Lithium in Lepidolite Leaching Solution

This study concerns the feasibility of extracting lithium and separating aluminum from lepidolite leaching solution by nanofiltration. Four commercial nanofiltration (NF) membranes (DK, DL, NF270, and Duracid NF) were chosen to investigate ion separation performance in simulated lepidolite leaching solution. Membranes were characterized according to FT-IR, hydrophobicity, zeta potential, morphology, thickness, pore size, and hydraulic permeability to reveal the effect of membrane properties on separation. NF membranes were investigated including the retention ratio of SO₄²⁻ and Li+, the separation efficiency of Li⁺/Al³⁺, and the effect of other cations (K⁺, Na⁺, Ca²⁺) on the separation of Li⁺/Al³⁺. The results show that DK membrane displayed the appropriate permeate flux and extremely high Li⁺/Al³⁺ separation efficiency with a separation factor of 471.3 compared with other NF membranes owing to its pore size, smooth membrane surface, and appropriate zeta potential. Overall, it is found that nanofiltration has a superior separation efficiency of lithium and aluminum, which may bring deep insights and open an avenue to offer a feasible strategy to extract lithium from lepidolite leaching solution in the future.

Modelling nanofiltration of electrolyte solutions

This review critically examines current models for nanofiltration (NF) of electrolyte solutions. We start from linear irreversible thermodynamics, we derive a basic equation set for ion transfer in terms of gradients of ion electrochemical potentials and transmembrane volume flux. These equations are extended to the case of significant differences of thermodynamic forces across the membrane (continuous version of irreversible thermodynamics) and solved in quadratures for single salts and trace ions added to single salts in the case of macroscopically-homogeneous membranes. These solutions reduce to (quasi)analytical expressions in the popular Spiegler-Kedem approximation (composition-independent phenomenological coefficients), which we extend to the case of trace ions. This enables us to identify membrane properties (e.g. ion permeances, ion reflection coefficients, electrokinetic charge density) that control its performance in NF of multi-ion solutions. Further, we specify the phenomenological coefficients of irreversible thermodynamics in terms of ion partitioning, hindrance and diffusion coefficients for the model of straight cylindrical capillaries. The corresponding expressions enable assessment of the applicability of the popular nanopore model of NF. This model (based on the use of macroscopic approaches at nanoscale) leads to a number of trends that have never been observed experimentally. We also show that the use of the Born formula (frequently employed for the description of dielectric exclusion) hardly leads to meaningful values of solvent dielectric constant in membrane pores because this formula disregards the very solvent structure whose changes are supposed to bring about the reduction of dielectric permittivity in nanopores. We conclude that the effect should better be quantified in terms of ion excess solvation energies in the membrane phase. As an alternative to the nanopore description of NF, we review recent work on the development of an advanced engineering model for NF of multi-ion solutions in terms of a solution-diffusion-electromigration mechanism. This model (taking into account spontaneously arising transmembrane electric fields) captures several trends observed experimentally, and the use of trace ions can provide model parameters (ion permeances in the membrane) from experiment. We also consider a recent model (ultrathin barrier layers with deviations from local electroneutrality) that may reproduce observed feed-salt concentration dependences of membrane performance in terms of concentration-independent properties like excess ion solvation energies. Due to its complexity, practical modelling of nanofiltration will probably be performed with advanced engineering models for the foreseeable future. Although mechanistic studies are vital for understanding transport and developing membranes, future simulations in this area will likely need to depart from typical continuum models to provide physical insight. For enhancing the quality of modelling input, it is essential to improve the control of concentration polarization in membrane test cells.

Predicting the Rejection of Major Seawater Ions by Spiral-Wound Nanofiltration Membranes

Seawater nanofiltration (SWNF) generates a softened permeate stream and a retentate stream in which the multivalent ions accumulate, offering opportunities for practical utilization of both streams. This study presents an approach to simulation of SWNF including all major seawater ions (Na(+), Cl(-), Ca(2+), Mg(2+), and SO4(2-)) based on the Nernst-Planck equation, and uses it for permeate and retentate streams composition prediction. The number of degrees of freedom in the system was reduced by assuming a very high ionic permeability for Na(+), which only weakly affected the other parameters in the system. Two alternatives were examined to analyze the importance of concentration dependence of ion permeabilities: The assumption of constant ion permeabilities resulted in a reasonable fit with experimental data. However, for the permeate composition the overall fit was significantly improved (P < 0.0001) when the permeabilities of Ca(2+) and Mg(2+) were allowed to depend on the ratio of their total concentration to Na(+). This type of dependence emphasizes the strong interaction of divalent ions with the membrane and its effect on the membrane fixed charge through screening or charge reversal. When this effect was included, model predictions closely matched the experimental results obtained, corroborating the phenomenological approach proposed in this study.

Application of nanofiltration for the rejection of nickel ions from aqueous solutions and estimation of membrane transport parameters

The present work deals with the application of a thin-film composite polyamide nanofiltration membrane for the rejection of nickel ions from aqueous wastewater. The operating variables studied are feed concentration (5-250ppm), applied pressure (4-20atm), feed flowrate (5-15L/min) and pH (2-8). It is observed that the observed rejection of nickel ions increases with increase in feed pressure and decreases with increase in feed concentration at constant feed flowrate. The maximum observed rejection of the metal is found to be 98% and 92% for an initial feed concentration of 5 and 250ppm, respectively. The effect of pH on the rejection of nickel ions and permeate flux are studied, and found that the variation in pH is having more effect on the latter than the former. The experimental data are analyzed using membrane transport models; combined-film theory-solution-diffusion (CFSD), combined-film theory-Spiegler-Kedem (CFSK) and combined-film theory-finely porous (CFFP) models; to estimate membrane transport parameters and mass transfer coefficient, k. Also, enrichment factor, concentration polarization modulus and Peclet number are found from various parameters. From CFFP model the effective membrane thickness and active skin layer thickness are found.

Tangential streaming potential as a tool in modeling of ion transport through nanoporous membranes

Tangential streaming potential (TSP) measurements have been carried out so as to assess the electrokinetic properties of the active layer of organic nanofiltration (NF) membranes. Due to the porous structure of NF membranes, cares must be taken to convert the experimental data into zeta potential. Indeed, an assumption that is implicitly made in Smoluchowski's theory (or in related approaches accounting for the surface conduction phenomenon) is that both streaming and conduction currents involved in the streaming potential process flow through an identical path. Such an assumption does not hold with porous membranes since the conduction current is expected to flow wherever the electric conductivity differs from zero. Consequently, a non-negligible share of the conduction current is likely to flow through the membrane body filled with the electrolyte solution. This phenomenon has been taken into account by carrying out a series of TSP measurements at various channel heights. Experiments have been conducted with various electrolyte solutions. The inferred zeta potentials have been further converted into membrane volume charge densities which have been used to predict the membrane performances in terms of rejection rates. The conventional NF theory, i.e. based on a steric/Donnan exclusion mechanism, has been found to be unable to describe the experimental rejection rates. Using the volume charge density of the membrane as an adjustable parameter, it has been shown that the conventional theory even predicts the opposite sign for the membrane charge. On the other hand, the experimental rejection rates have been well described by including dielectric effects in the exclusion mechanism. In this case, a noticeable lowering of the effective dielectric constant of the electrolyte solution inside pores has been predicted (with respect to the bulk value).

Ion implantation: effect on flux and rejection properties of NF membranes

Nanofiltration (NF) membranes typically carry a net electric charge, enabling electrostatic interactions to play a pivotal role in the rejection of species such as metals, nitrates, and other charged contaminants. In this study, two types of polymeric NF membranes, polyamide and cellulose acetate, were modified by ion implantation to increase the effective surface charge of the membranes. The modified membranes contain implanted ions in the membrane matrix, inducing a discrete, permanent charge in the active membrane layer. The presence of a permanent charge in the membrane matrix allows for increased electrostatic repulsive forces throughout the entire pH range. Streaming potential measurements were conducted as a function of pH for the modified and unmodified membranes to determine the effect of ion implantation on the zeta potential of the membranes. Rejection experiments were performed in order to quantify the effect of increased electrostatic repulsion on ion rejection, and flux measurements quantified the effect of the modification on permeability. Results indicate that electrostatic interactions near the membrane surface can affect rejection; however, the extent of the effect of increased membrane charge depends on physical-chemical characteristics of the membrane. Increased negative zeta potential of the modified membranes resulted in slightly higher rejection of salts with divalent co-ions from the membrane, with less increase observed with salts of monovalent co-ions. Modified membranes were less permeable than the unmodified membranes. Results of this research hold implications in membrane synthesis and modification studies as well as choice of membranes for water treatment applications.

Factors affecting the rejection of organic solutes during NF/RO treatment--a literature review

The incomplete rejection of certain pesticides, disinfection by-products, endocrine disrupting compounds, and pharmaceutically active compounds has been reported during full- and pilot-scale high-pressure membrane applications. Since the removal of these compounds in water and wastewater treatment applications is of great importance where a high product water quality is desired, an understanding of the factors affecting the permeation of solutes in high-pressure membrane systems is needed. In this paper, findings of a comprehensive literature review are reported, targeting membrane rejection mechanisms and factors affecting rejection. The following key solute parameters were identified to primarily affect solute rejection: molecular weight (MW), molecular size (length and width), acid disassociation constant (pKa), hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity (log Kow), and diffusion coefficient (Dp). Key membrane properties affecting rejection that were identified include molecular weight cut-off, pore size, surface charge (measured as zeta potential), hydrophobicity/hydrophilicity (measured as contact angle), and surface morphology (measured as roughness). In addition, feed water composition, such as pH, ionic strength, hardness, and the presence of organic matter, was also identified as having an influence on solute rejection. From the knowledge gained during the literature review, a rejection diagram was proposed, which qualitatively allows prediction of solute rejection if certain solute and membrane properties are known.

Evaluation of the “DSPM” model on a titania membrane: measurements of charged and uncharged solute retention, electrokinetic charge, pore size, and water permeability

The DSPM (Donnan steric partitioning pore model) was evaluated in the case of a titania membrane with "nanofiltration properties" by measuring the electrokinetic charge, pore size, and water permeability of the membrane, along with charged and uncharged solute retention. The zeta potential values (zeta) were determined from measurements of the electrophoretic mobility (EM) of titania powder forming the filtering layer of the membrane. Zeta potential values were converted into membrane volume charge (X) by assuming two limiting cases: a constant surface charge (sigma(s)(cst)) and a constant surface potential (psi(s)(cst)). The mean pore radius and thickness/porosity ratio of the membrane were determined by permporometry and from water permeability measurements, respectively. Retention measurements were carried out as a function of the permeate volume flux for both neutral solutes (polyethylene glycol PEG of different size) and salts (KCl, MgSO4, K2SO4, and MgCl2) at various pH values. Ionic retentions showed minimum values near the IEP of the membrane. Retention data were analyzed using the DSPM. Very good agreement was found between the pore radius calculated by the model and that determined by permporometry. X values calculated from fitting retention data using the DSPM were also in satisfactorily agreement with X values calculated from EM measurements assuming a constant surface potential for a large pH range. Furthermore, the DSPM leads to X values (X(DSPM)) between those calculated from EM (X(EM)) using the two limiting bounds. In other words, X(DSPM) was higher than X(EM) assuming psi(s)(cst) at pH values far from the isoelectric point (IEP) and lower than X(EM) assuming sigma(s)(cst). These results show that the DSPM is in qualitative agreement with the charge regulation theory (increase of the pore surface potential and decrease of the pore surface charge density with decreasing the pore size). On the other hand, the thickness/porosity ratio of the membrane calculated from solute retention data differed significantly from that determined from water permeability measurements. Moreover, a single value of Deltax/Ak could not be determined from PEG and salt retention data. This means that the Deltax/Ak parameter loses its physical meaning and includes physical phenomena which are not taken into account by the DSPM. Nevertheless, the model satisfactorily predicted the limiting retention, as this is not influenced by the Deltax/Ak parameter.

Electro-membrane filtration for the selective isolation of bioactive peptides from an alpha(s2)-casein hydrolysate

For the isolation of the ingredients required for functional foods and nutraceuticals generally membrane filtration has too low a selectivity and chromatography is (too) expensive. Electro-membrane filtration (EMF) seems to be a breakthrough technology for the isolation of charged nutraceutical ingredients from natural sources. EMF combines the separation mechanisms of membrane filtration and electrophoresis. In this study, positively charged peptides with antimicrobial activity were isolated from an alpha(s2)-casein hydrolysate using batch-wise EMF. alpha(s2)-Casein f(183-207), a peptide with strong antimicrobial activity, predominated in the isolated product and was enriched from 7.5% of the total protein components in the feed to 25% in the permeate product. With conventional membrane diafiltration using the same membrane (GR60PP), isolation of this and other charged bioactive peptides could not be achieved. The economics of EMF are mainly governed by the energy costs and the capital investment, which is affected by the flux of the desired peptide. A maximum average transport rate of alpha(s2)-casein f(183-207) during batch-wise EMF of 1.2 g/m2. h was achieved. Results indicate that an increase in the hydrolysate (feed) concentration, the applied potential difference and the conductivity of the permeate and electrode solutions, and a reduction in the conductivity of the feed result in a higher transport rate of alpha(s2)-casein f(183-207). This is in line with the expectation that the transport rate is improved when the concentration, the electrical field strength, or the electrophoretic mobility is increased, provided that the electrophoretic transport predominates. The expected energy consumption of the EMF process per gram of peptide transported was reduced by approximately 50% by applying a low overall potential difference and by processing desalinated hydrolysate. Considerable improvements in transport rate, energy efficiency, and process economics seem to be attainable by additional optimization of the process parameters and the EMF module design.