Fractionation of pea flour with pilot scale sieving. I. Physical and chemical characteristics of pea seed fractions

Characterization, mathematical modeling of moisture sorption isotherms and bioactive compounds of Andean root flours

Andean roots can be used as an alternative to gluten-free food. The objective of this study was to enhance the technological and nutritional properties of Andean root flours to promote their industrial applicability. The water content and activity of the flour were lower than those required to prevent mold growth. The bulk density of the flour was comparable to that of wheat flour. The flour of Ipomoea batatas (L.) Lam. exhibited the lowest water absorption capacity of the tested samples. However, both this flour and Tropaeolum tuberosum Ruiz & Pavón showed a higher fat absorption capacity. The samples exhibited type-II isotherms, indicating that the flours were highly hygroscopic. The Guggenheim, Anderson, and de Boer GAB model showed a higher coefficient of determination in mathematical modeling. The chroma of T. tuberosum Ruiz & Pavón flour was higher than the other samples, which was related to total carotenoids and lycopene. Furthermore, I. batatas (L.) Lam. exhibited the highest phenol value.

Mild Fractionation for More Sustainable Food Ingredients

With the rising problems of food shortages, energy costs, and raw materials, the food industry must reduce its environmental impact. We present an overview of more resource-efficient processes to produce food ingredients, describing their environmental impact and the functional properties obtained. Extensive wet processing yields high purities but also has the highest environmental impact, mainly due to heating for protein precipitation and dehydration. Milder wet alternatives exclude, for example, low pH-driven separation and are based on salt precipitation or water only. Drying steps are omitted during dry fractionation using air classification or electrostatic separation. Benefits of milder methods are enhanced functional properties. Therefore, fractionation and formulation should be focused on the desired functionality instead of purity. Environmental impact is also strongly reduced by milder refining. Antinutritional factors and off-flavors remain challenges in more mildly produced ingredients. The benefits of less refining motivate the increasing trend toward mildly refined ingredients.

Production of Protein Concentrates from Macauba (Acrocomia aculeata and Acrocomia totai) Kernels by Sieve Fractionation

Macauba palm fruits (Acrocomia aculeata and Acrocomia totai) are emerging as sources of high-quality oils from their pulp and kernels. The protein-rich macauba kernel meal (MKM) left after oil extraction remains undervalued, mainly due to the lack of suitable deoiling parameters and integrated protein recovery methods. Therefore, the present study aimed to produce protein concentrates from MKM using sieve fractionation. The deoiling parameters, comprising pressing, milling, and solvent extraction, were improved in terms of MKM functionality. The combination of hydraulic pressing, milling to 1 mm, and the hexane extraction of A. aculeata kernels resulted in MKM with the highest protein solubility (77.1%), emulsifying activity index (181 m²/g protein), and emulsion stability (149 min). After sieve fractionation (cut size of 62 µm), this meal yielded a protein concentrate with a protein content of 65.6%, representing a 74.1% protein enrichment compared to the initial MKM. This protein concentrate showed a reduced gelling concentration from 8 to 6%, and an increased emulsion stability from 149 to 345 min, in comparison to the MKM before sieving. Therefore, sieve fractionation after improved deoiling allows for the simple, cheap, and environmentally friendly recovery of MKM proteins, highlighting the potential of macauba kernels as a new source of protein.

A comprehensive review on pulse protein fractionation and extraction: processes, functionality, and food applications

The increasing world population requires the production of nutrient-rich foods. Protein is an essential macronutrient for healthy individuals. Interest in using plant proteins in foods has increased in recent years due to their sustainability and nutritional benefits. Dry and wet protein fractionation methods have been developed to increase protein yield, purity, and functional and nutritional qualities. This review explores the recent developments in pretreatments and fractionation processes used for producing pulse protein concentrates and isolates. Functionality differences between pulse proteins obtained from different fractionation methods and the use of fractionated pulse proteins in different food applications are also critically reviewed. Pretreatment methods improve the de-hulling efficiency of seeds prior to fractionation. Research on wet fractionation methods focuses on improving sustainability and functionality of proteins while studies on dry methods focus on increasing protein yield and purity. Hybrid methods produced fractionated proteins with higher yield and purity while also improving protein functionality and process sustainability. Dry and hybrid fractionated proteins have comparable or superior functionalities relative to wet fractionated proteins. Pulse protein ingredients are successfully incorporated into various food formulations with notable changes in their sensory properties. Future studies could focus on optimizing the fractionation process, improving protein concentrate palatability, and optimizing formulations using pulse proteins.

Functionality and starch digestibility of wrinkled and round pea flours of two different particle sizes

Wrinkled and round peas (two varieties each type) cultivated in two locations were milled to obtain fine and coarse wrinkled (WPF) and round pea flour (RPF). WPF exhibited markedly increased pasting viscosities at 120 and 140 °C compared with 95 °C. Overall, the pasting properties of WPF were considerably lower than those of RPF. Resistant starch (RS) contents of cooked WPF (17.2-22.2%, dsb) were significantly larger than those of RPF (7.9-11.4%), resulting from higher starch gelatinization temperatures, greater amylose contents, and presence of more protein and fiber in WPF. The two particle sizes affected the water-holding capacity (WHC) of WPF, gelatinization enthalpy changes (ΔH) of WPF and RPF, and pasting properties and starch digestibility of RPF. Pearson correlation and principal component analysis (PCA) were conducted to reveal the relationships among the techno-functional parameters of pea flours. Wrinkled pea showed promise to generate new pea flours with distinct functionality and enhanced nutritional value.

Pulse Flour Characteristics from a Wheat Flour Miller's Perspective: A Comprehensive Review

Pulses (grain legumes) are increasingly of interest to the food industry as product formulators and consumers seek to exploit their fiber-rich and protein-rich reputation in the development of nutritionally attractive new products, particularly in the bakery, gluten-free, snack, pasta, and noodle categories. The processing of pulses into consistent high-quality ingredients starts with a well-defined and controlled milling process. However, in contrast to the extensive body of knowledge on wheat flour milling, the peer-reviewed literature on pulse flour milling is not as well defined, except for the dehulling process. This review synthesizes information on milling of leguminous commodities such as chickpea (kabuli and desi), lentil (green and red), pea, and bean (adzuki, black, cowpea, kidney, navy, pinto, and mung) from the perspective of a wheat miller to explore the extent to which pulse milling studies have addressed the objectives of wheat flour milling. These objectives are to reduce particle size (so as to facilitate ingredient miscibility), to separate components (so as to improve value and/or functionality), and to effect mechanochemical transformations (for example, to cause starch damage). Current international standards on pulse quality are examined from the perspective of their relationship to the millability of pulses (that is, grain legume properties at mill receival). The effect of pulse flour on the quality of the products they are incorporated in is examined solely from the perspective of flour quality not quantity. Finally, we identify research gaps where critical questions should be answered if pulse milling science and technology are to be established on par with their wheat flour milling counterparts.

Effect of particle size on antioxidant activity and catechin content of green tea powders

This work evaluated the effect of grinding and sieving process of green tea leaves on particle size distribution and antioxidant activity. Granulometric classes ranging from 20 μm to 500 μm were studied. Hydroalcoholic extracts of green tea powders (GTPs) were analysed for total phenolic, total flavonoid, and catechin contents. The fraction of 100-180 μm ground at 6000 rpm showed the maximum catechin content with 33.5 mg/g dry matter (DM) and, the best antioxidant activity with IC50 values of 0.28 μg/mL and 0.13 μg/mL using DPPH and ABTS radical scavenging assays, respectively. However, antioxidant properties and catechin content decreased for particle of sizes less than 50 μm. Catechin content was higher for those ground at 6000 rpm as compared to at 18,000 rpm. The best grinding conditions and particle size were 6000 rpm and 100-180 μm.

Physicochemical properties and adsorption of cholesterol by okra (Abelmoschus esculentus) powder

Superfine ground okra powders show various physicochemical properties and improve the adsorption of cholesterol.

Characterization of byproducts originating from hemp oil processing

Valorization of hemp seed meal, a byproduct of hemp oil processing, was performed by measuring the distribution of nutritional and antinutritional compounds in different hemp seed meal fractions. According to chemical composition, two cotyledon-containing fractions (>180 and <180 μm) were significantly richer in protein (p < 0.05) (41.2% ± 0.04% and 44.4% ± 0.02%, respectively), lipid (15.1% ± 0.02% and 18.6% ± 0.04%, respectively), and sugar content (4.96% ± 0.11% and 3.46% ± 0.08%, respectively) in comparison to the hull-containing fractions (>350 and >250 μm), which were significantly richer in crude fiber content (29.5% ± 0.04% and 21.3% ± 0.03%, respectively). The free radical scavenging capacity (IC50) of fraction extracts increased (p < 0.05) with increasing mean particle size (from 17.18 ± 0.59 to 5.29 ± 0.30 mg/mL). Cannabisin B and N-trans-caffeoyltyramine were the most abundant phenolic compounds in the hull fractions (from 267 ± 15.9 to 287 ± 23.1 mg/kg), while cotyledon fractions had higher content of catechin (from 313 ± 12.4 to 744 ± 22.2 mg/kg) and p-hydroxybenzoic acid (from 124 ± 6.47 to 129 ± 8.56 mg/kg (P < 0.05). Well-balanced ω-6 to ω-3 fatty acid ratio (3:1) was determined in all fractions. Antinutrients (trypsin inhibitors, phytic acid, glucosinolates, and condensed tannins) were mostly located in the cotyledon fractions. These findings indicate that the separation of hemp seed meal into different fractions could be used to concentrate valuable target compounds and consequently facilitate their recovery.

Influence of grinding on the nutritive value of peas for ruminants: comparison between in vitro and in situ approaches

In ruminant nutrition, peas are characterized by high protein solubility and degradability, which impair its protein value estimated by the official in situ method. Grinding can be used as a technological treatment of pea seeds to modify their nutritional value. The aim of this study was to compare the in situ method with an in vitro method on the same pea either in a coarse pea flour form (PCF) or in a ground pea fine flour form (PFF) to understand the effect of grinding. Both forms were also reground (GPCF and GPFF). PCF presented a lower rate of in vitro degradation than PFF, and more stable fermentation parameters (pH, ammonia, soluble carbohydrates) even if gas production was higher for the PCF after 48 h of incubation. In situ dry matter and protein degradation were lower for PCF than those for PFF; these differences were more marked than with the in vitro method. Reground peas were very similar to PFF. The values for pea protein digestible in the intestine (PDI) were higher for PCF than those for PFF. This study points out the high sensitivity of the in situ method to grinding. The study needs to be validated by in vivo measurements.

Effect of superfine grinding on antidiabetic activity of bitter melon powder

The antidiabetic activities of bitter melon powders produced with lyophilization/superfine grinding and hot air drying/normal grinding were investigated in vivo for selecting a suitable bitter melon processing procedure. After a five-week treatment, bitter melon lyophilized superfine grinding powder (BLSP) had a higher antidiabetic activity with reducing fasting blood glucose levels from 21.40 to 12.54 mmol/L, the serum insulin levels from 40.93 to 30.74 mIU/L, and restoring activities of SOD compared with those in the bitter melon hot air drying powder (BAP) treated group. Furthermore, BLSP protected pancreatic tissues including islet beta cells and reduced the loss of islet cells. Combined with the difference of compositions in BLSP and BAP, it could be concluded that superfine grinding and lyophilization processes were beneficial for presenting the antidiabetic activity, which will provide a reference for direct utilization of bitter melon as a suitable functional food to relieve symptoms of diabetes.

Physical, gravimetric and functional characterization of various milling fractions of popped gorgon nut (Euryale ferox)

Studies were carried out on the milling characteristics to increase the usability of popped gorgon nut (makhana). It was conditioned to 6.2, 9.4 and 12.3% (db) moisture content and ground in a hammer mill at feed rates of 3, 6 and 9 kg/h. The differential screen analysis showed that increase in moisture content decreased the percent weight retained in the pan and produced more medium sized particles (0.592-0.157 mm). The Bond's work index, Kick's constant and average particle size increased but total surface area decreased with the increase of conditioning level. However, feed rate showed the antagonistic effect on these parameters. Various grinding characteristics were significantly affected either individually or in combination (interaction) by the conditioning level as well as the feed rate and could be well correlated in terms of Bond's work index, Kick's constant, total surface area, average particle size, effectiveness of milling and bulk density for popped makhana.

Surface characterization of ginger powder examined by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy

The surface composition of five types of ginger powders with the particle sizes of 300, 149, 74, 37 and 8.34 microm was investigated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and various types of physical-chemical characteristics regarding material particle size distributions, discoloration and chemical composition. The results show that the color differences are greater for superfine ground ginger than for conventional comminuted ones; the values of crude fibre, neutral detergent fiber (NDF) and acid detergent fiber (ADF) decrease with decreasing ginger particle size. However, no relationship with the surface fat, crude protein, ash and total solids exists. With superfine grinding the XPS O/C ratios of the five ginger powders were similar since the surfaces were not oxidized. Correlations were observed between the XPS N/C ratios and the high resolution XPS N 1s spectra. SEM observations revealed that the surface of ginger powder with a particle size of 300 microm is rougher, while superfine ground powders with particle sizes of 149, 74, 37 and 8.34 microm are similar to each other. This roughness difference between these surfaces correlates with the differences in their O/C ratios and the surface morphology of five ginger powders.

Short-Term Number of Pecks and Feed Intake Levels: A Link with the Physical Characteristics of Feed in Four-Week-Old Turkeys

Short-term reactions of young turkeys to changes in the physical characteristics of their feed sometimes give rise to problems of adaptation in the field. Specific feeders were designed for this study to automatically count the number of pecks given at feed by 4-wk-old male turkeys during 95-min sessions. The lighting program was intermittent (0140L:0100D). In experiment 1, 4 series of 12 birds were tested 4 times/day from 28 to 31 d of age. Four control turkeys were consistently tested with 1 feed, and 8 experimental turkeys ate 1 of 32 commercial feeds (30 as pellets and 2 as crumbs) with a distinct feed for each test (16 replicates/experimental feed). Feed intake, total number of pecks, and pecking efficiency (mg/peck) were recorded for each test and normalized for each turkey. The effects of series, day, and test were not significant for controls. The number of pecks and pecking efficiency differed among feeds (P < 0.001) but not feed intake. Hierarchical Cluster Analysis for these variables distinguished 3 groups of feed: group 3 (6 crumb and small pellets) resulted in high pecking and low efficiency. However, group 1 (10 feeds) were pecked at less but more efficiently than group 2 (16 feeds) for similar feed intake, although the average sizes of the pellets were similar (6.23 and 6.16 mm, respectively), as were the average bulk density, hardness, resistance to abrasion, and color characteristics of the pellets for both groups. Two feeds of each of these 2 groups were compared in a second experiment for 12 turkeys receiving the 4 feeds successively each day over 4 d in varying order. The turkeys consistently pecked the feeds of group 1 less and less efficiently compared with group 2. The automated measurement of pecking, combined with a more detailed image analysis of feed particles, might enhance the evaluation of the effects of feed technology on the behavior of turkeys and thus become a useful tool for the feed industry.