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St. Charles JL, Brooks PT, Bell JA, Ahmed H, Van Allen M, Manning SD, Mansfield LS. Zoonotic Transmission of Campylobacter jejuni to Caretakers From Sick Pen Calves Carrying a Mixed Population of Strains With and Without Guillain Barré Syndrome-Associated Lipooligosaccharide Loci. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:800269. [PMID: 35591997 PMCID: PMC9112162 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.800269] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/16/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Campylobacter jejuni causes foodborne gastroenteritis and may trigger acute autoimmune sequelae including Guillain Barré Syndrome. Onset of neuromuscular paralysis is associated with exposure to C. jejuni lipooligosaccharide (LOS) classes A, B, C, D, and E that mimic and evoke antibodies against gangliosides on myelin and axons of peripheral nerves. Family members managing a Michigan dairy operation reported recurring C. jejuni gastroenteritis. Because dairy cattle are known to shed C. jejuni, we hypothesized that calves in the sick pen were the source of human infections. Fecal samples obtained from twenty-five calves, one dog, and one asymptomatic family member were cultured for Campylobacter. C. jejuni isolates were obtained from thirteen calves and the family member: C. coli from two calves, and C. hyointestinalis from two calves. Some calves had diarrhea; most were clinically normal. Typing of lipooligosaccharide biosynthetic loci showed that eight calf C. jejuni isolates fell into classes A, B, and C. Two calf isolates and the human isolate possessed LOS class E, associated mainly with enteric disease and rarely with Guillain Barré Syndrome. Multi-locus sequence typing, porA and flaA typing, and whole genome comparisons of the thirteen C. jejuni isolates indicated that the three LOS class E strains that included the human isolate were closely related, indicating zoonotic transmission. Whole-genome comparisons revealed that isolates differed in virulence gene content, particularly in loci encoding biosynthesis of surface structures. Family members experienced diarrheal illness repeatedly over 2 years, yet none experienced GBS despite exposure to calves carrying invasive C. jejuni with LOS known to elicit antiganglioside autoantibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jessica L. St. Charles
- Comparative Enteric Diseases Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Comparative Medicine and Integrative Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Phillip T. Brooks
- Comparative Enteric Diseases Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Comparative Medicine and Integrative Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Julia A. Bell
- Comparative Enteric Diseases Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Husnain Ahmed
- Comparative Enteric Diseases Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Comparative Medicine and Integrative Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Mia Van Allen
- Comparative Enteric Diseases Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Shannon D. Manning
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
| | - Linda S. Mansfield
- Comparative Enteric Diseases Laboratory, Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Comparative Medicine and Integrative Biology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Institute for Integrative Toxicology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- Department of Microbiology and Molecular Genetics, Michigan State University, East Lansing, MI, United States
- *Correspondence: Linda S. Mansfield,
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Sinigalliano C, Kim K, Gidley M, Yuknavage K, Knee K, Palacios D, Bautista C, Bonacolta A, Lee HW, Maurin L. Microbial Source Tracking of Fecal Indicating Bacteria in Coral Reef Waters, Recreational Waters, and Groundwater of Saipan by Real-Time Quantitative PCR. Front Microbiol 2021; 11:596650. [PMID: 33537011 PMCID: PMC7848096 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2020.596650] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/16/2020] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands (CNMI) recently identified the need to improve its capacity for detecting and tracking land-based sources of pollution (LBSP) in coastal waters, particularly microbial contaminants like fecal indicator bacteria (FIB). Reported here is a baseline study of a suite of host-specific FIB microbial source tracking (MST) markers in the coastal shoreline and reef waters around the island of Saipan. Three sampling campaigns were conducted in September 2017, March 2018, and August 2018. Samples were collected from the nearshore surface waters of Saipan, the reef waters of Saipan Lagoon, and groundwater from beaches along the Saipan Lagoon shoreline. Measurements of submarine groundwater discharge (SGD) into nearshore waters and isotopic source tracking of nitrogen inputs were conducted concurrently with MST. Environmental DNA was extracted from the samples and analyzed by quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) for MST gene markers of fecal Bacteroidales specifically associated with humans, dogs, cows, and pigs, and for an MST gene marker of Catellicoccus associated with seabirds. MST assessments were combined with local knowledge, assessments of sanitary infrastructure, and routine watershed surveys. This study identified hotspots of human FIB along the western Saipan Lagoon shoreline in both surface waters and groundwater, plus another hotspot of human FIB at a popular tourist bathing area known as the Grotto. FIB hotspots on the Lagoon shoreline coincided with areas of high SGD and nitrogen isotopic data indicating sewage-derived N inputs. It appears that faulty sanitary infrastructure may be contributing to inputs to Saipan Lagoon, while bather shedding is likely a primary input for the Grotto area. Moderate levels of dog fecal contamination were common and widespread across the island. High levels of seabird fecal contamination were more random, both spatially and temporally, and mostly concentrated along the less developed northeast region of Saipan. No significant levels of cow or pig fecal marker were detected in coastal water samples. This study provides demonstration and establishment of analytical capacity to resource management in CNMI for MST technology to aid in trouble-shooting water quality issues involving land-based sources of microbial contaminants to CNMI coastal waters.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Sinigalliano
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kiho Kim
- Department of Environmental Science, American University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Maribeth Gidley
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States.,Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Kathy Yuknavage
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
| | - Karen Knee
- Department of Environmental Science, American University, Washington, DC, United States
| | - Dean Palacios
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
| | - Charito Bautista
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
| | - Anthony Bonacolta
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States.,Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Hyo Won Lee
- Atlantic Oceanographic and Meteorological Laboratory, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, Miami, FL, United States.,Cooperative Institute for Marine and Atmospheric Studies, University of Miami, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Larry Maurin
- Water Quality Surveillance/Nonpoint Source Program, Bureau of Environmental and Coastal Quality, Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, Saipan, MP, United States
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Gaulin C, Ramsay D, Dion R, Simard M, Gariépy C, Levac É, Hammond-Collins K, Michaud-Dumont M, Gignac M, Fiset M. Veal Liver as Food Vehicle for Human Campylobacter Infections. Emerg Infect Dis 2019; 24:1130-1133. [PMID: 29774851 PMCID: PMC6004875 DOI: 10.3201/eid2406.171900] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
A matched case-control study in Quebec, Canada, evaluated consumption of veal liver as a risk factor for campylobacteriosis. Campylobacter was identified in 28 of 97 veal livers collected concurrently from slaughterhouses and retailers. Veal liver was associated with human Campylobacter infection, particularly when consumed undercooked.
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Al-Mashhadany DA. Detection of antibiotic residues among raw beef in Erbil City (Iraq) and impact of temperature on antibiotic remains. Ital J Food Saf 2019; 8:7897. [PMID: 31008087 PMCID: PMC6452087 DOI: 10.4081/ijfs.2019.7897] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Accepted: 02/11/2019] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The presence of antibiotic residues in beef is considered a serious threat to public health. This study aimed to detect antibiotic residues in raw beef and the impact of low and high temperature treatments on residues persistence. A total of 250 sampleswere collected from retail markets in Erbil city (Iraq) and analyzed microbiologically in plates pre-inoculated with Bacillus subtilis. The overall occurrence of antibiotics residues was (10.8%).The highest rate was detected in January (16.7%). Cooking for thirty minutes completely deactivate antibiotic residues against the challenged bacterium. In conclusion, the presence of antibiotic residues in beef samples in Erbil city was high and their persistence is markedly reduced by cooking.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dhary Alewy Al-Mashhadany
- Department of Pathological Analysis, Knowledge University College of Science, Erbil, Kurdistan Region, Iraq
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Yimer M, Gezhagne M, Biruk T, Dinaol B. A review on major bacterial causes of calf diarrhea and its diagnostic method. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.5897/jvmah2014.0351] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/31/2022]
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Age-related shifts in the density and distribution of genetic marker water quality indicators in cow and calf feces. Appl Environ Microbiol 2013; 80:1588-94. [PMID: 24362434 DOI: 10.1128/aem.03581-13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Calves make up about 16% of the current bovine population in the United States and can excrete high levels of human pathogens in their feces. We describe the density and distribution of genetic markers from 9 PCR- and real-time quantitative PCR-based assays, including CF128, CF193, CowM2, CowM3, GenBac3, Entero1, EC23S857, CampF2, and ttr-6, commonly used to help assess ambient surface water quality. Each assay was tested against a collection of 381 individual bovine fecal samples representing 31 mother and calf pairings collected over a 10-month time period from time of birth through weaning. Genetic markers reported to be associated with ruminant and/or bovine fecal pollution were virtually undetected in calves for up to 115 days from birth, suggesting that physiological changes in calf ruminant function impact host-associated genetic marker shedding. In addition, general fecal indicator markers for Bacteroidales, Escherichia coli, and Enterococcus spp. exhibited three separate trends across time, indicating that these bacteria respond differently to age-related physiological and dietary changes during calf development. The results of this study suggest that currently available PCR-based water quality indicator technologies can under- or overestimate fecal pollution originating from calves and identify a need for novel calf-associated source identification methods.
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7
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Scientific Opinion on the public health hazards to be covered by inspection of meat (bovine animals). EFSA J 2013. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2013.3266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Klein D, Alispahic M, Sofka D, Iwersen M, Drillich M, Hilbert F. Prevalence and risk factors for shedding of thermophilic Campylobacter in calves with and without diarrhea in Austrian dairy herds. J Dairy Sci 2013; 96:1203-10. [DOI: 10.3168/jds.2012-5987] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2012] [Accepted: 11/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Arsenault J, Berke O, Michel P, Ravel A, Gosselin P. Environmental and demographic risk factors for campylobacteriosis: do various geographical scales tell the same story? BMC Infect Dis 2012; 12:318. [PMID: 23173982 PMCID: PMC3570353 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2334-12-318] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2011] [Accepted: 11/15/2012] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Campylobacter is a common cause of bacterial gastro-enteritis characterized by multiple environmental sources and transmission pathways. Ecological studies can be used to reveal important regional characteristics linked to campylobacteriosis risk, but their results can be influenced by the choice of geographical units of analysis. This study was undertaken to compare the associations between the incidence of campylobacteriosis in Quebec, Canada and various environmental characteristics using seven different sets of geographical units. METHODS For each set of geographical unit, a conditional autoregressive model was used to model the incidence of reported cases of campylobacteriosis according to environmental (poultry density, ruminant density, slaughterhouse presence, temperature, and precipitation) and demographic (population density, level of education) characteristics. Models were compared in terms of number of significant predictors, differences in direction and magnitude of predictors, and fit of the models. RESULTS In general, the number of significant predictors was reduced as the aggregation level increased. More aggregated scales tend to show larger but less precise estimates for all variables, with the exception of slaughterhouse presence. Regional characteristics associated with an increased regional risk of campylobacteriosis, for at least some geographical units, were high ruminant density, high poultry density, high population density, and presence of a large poultry slaughterhouse, whereas a reduction in risk was associated with a lower percentage of people with diplomas, a lower level of precipitation, and warmer temperature. Two clusters of elevated residual risk were observed, with different location and size depending on the geographical unit used. CONCLUSIONS Overall, our results suggest that the use of municipality or census consolidated subdivision were the most optimal scales for studying environmental determinants of campylobacteriosis at a regional level. This study highlights the need for careful selection and analysis of geographical units when using ecological study designs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie Arsenault
- Faculté de médecine vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, Québec, Canada.
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Harris MA, Tsui JK, Marion SA, Shen H, Teschke K. Association of Parkinson's disease with infections and occupational exposure to possible vectors. Mov Disord 2012; 27:1111-7. [PMID: 22753266 DOI: 10.1002/mds.25077] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2011] [Revised: 04/27/2012] [Accepted: 05/09/2012] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
The ultimate causes of idiopathic Parkinson's disease (PD) are not fully known, but environmental and occupational causes are suspected. Postencephalitic parkinsonism has been linked to influenza, and other viral infections have also been suspected to relate to PD. We estimated the relationship between PD and both infections and possible vectors of infection (i.e., animal and human) in a population-based, case-control study in British Columbia, Canada. We recruited 403 cases detected by their use of antiparkinsonian medications and 405 controls from the registrants of the provincial universal health insurance plan. Severe influenza was associated with PD (odds ratio [OR]: 2.01; 95% confidence interval [CI]: 1.16-3.48), although this effect was attenuated when reports were restricted to those occurring 10 or more years before diagnosis. Childhood illnesses were inversely associated with PD, particularly red measles (OR: 0.65; 95% CI: 0.48-0.90). Several animal exposures were associated with PD, with statistically significant effects for cats (OR: 2.06; 95% CI: 1.09-3.92) and cattle (OR: 2.23; 95% CI: 1.22-4.09). Influenza infection may be associated with PD. The inverse relationships with childhood infections may suggest an increased risk with subclinical or asymptomatic childhood infections. Occupational exposure to animals may increase risk through transmission of infections or may indicate exposure to another agent of interest (e.g., bacterial endotoxin).
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Affiliation(s)
- M Anne Harris
- University of British Columbia, School of Population and Public Health, Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada.
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11
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Lynch OA, Cagney C, McDowell DA, Duffy G. Occurrence of fastidious Campylobacter spp. in fresh meat and poultry using an adapted cultural protocol. Int J Food Microbiol 2011; 150:171-7. [PMID: 21855156 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2011.07.037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2011] [Revised: 07/26/2011] [Accepted: 07/30/2011] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
This study used an adapted cultural protocol for the recovery of fastidious species of Campylobacter, to gain a more accurate understanding of the diversity of Campylobacter populations in fresh meats. Chicken (n=185), pork (n=179) and beef (n=186) were collected from supermarkets and butchers throughout the Republic of Ireland. Samples were enriched in Campylobacter enrichment broth for 24h under an atmosphere of 2.5% O(2), 7% H(2), 10% CO(2), and 80.5% N(2). The enriched samples were then filtered onto non-selective Anaerobe Basal Agar supplemented with lysed horse blood using mixed ester filter membranes. Isolates were identified by both genus and species-specific PCR assays and biochemical testing. The incidence of campylobacters on beef (36%) was significantly higher than on pork (22%) or chicken (16%), and far exceeds previously reported prevalence levels. The method was successful in recovering 7 species of Campylobacter, including the fastidious spp. C. concisus and C. mucosalis, from chicken meat, and 10 species, including C. concisus, C. curvus, C. mucosalis, C. sputorum, and C. upsaliensis, from minced beef. The isolation of C. concisus and C. upsaliensis from meat in this study is of particular significance, due to their emerging clinical relevance. The results of this study confirm that the diversity of Campylobacter species on fresh meats is greater than previously reported and highlights the bias of cultural methods towards the recovery of C. jejuni.
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Affiliation(s)
- Orla A Lynch
- Teagasc Food Research Centre, Ashtown, Dublin 15, Ireland
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12
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Izzo MM, Kirkland PD, Mohler VL, Perkins NR, Gunn AA, House JK. Prevalence of major enteric pathogens in Australian dairy calves with diarrhoea. Aust Vet J 2011; 89:167-73. [PMID: 21495987 PMCID: PMC7159393 DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-0813.2011.00692.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Determine the prevalence of the major enteric pathogens in dairy and dairy beef calves with diarrhoea in Australia. DESIGN Cross-sectional study. METHODS Faecal samples from 84 Australian dairy and dairy beef properties (597 samples) were screened for rotavirus and coronavirus using real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction, for Salmonella spp. using selective enrichment faecal culture, and for enterotoxigenic Escherichia coli (K99) and Cryptosporidium parvum using a commercial enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. A logistic regression with random effects model was used to compare prevalence of pathogens in dairy and dairy beef operations. RESULTS Enteric pathogens were isolated from 97.6% of outbreaks and 95.0% of samples. Rotavirus was the most common pathogen identified (477/597, 79.9%) followed by C. parvum (349/597, 58.5%), Salmonella spp. (142/597, 23.8%), coronavirus (129/597, 21.6%) and E. coli K99 (104/597, 17.4%). Multiple pathogens were identified on 96.4% of farms and from 71.0% of samples. Samples from dairy beef properties were more likely to have multiple pathogens than dairy properties (P < 0.05), whereas rotavirus and Salmonella spp. were more likely to be identified in samples collected from dairy beef than dairy properties (P < 0.05). CONCLUSION Most outbreaks of calf diarrhoea in dairy and dairy beef operations involve multiple pathogens. Rotavirus and C. parvum were the most frequently identified pathogens across production systems. Salmonella spp. and rotavirus were more frequently identified in dairy beef operations.
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Affiliation(s)
- M M Izzo
- Livestock Veterinary Teaching and Research Unit, University of Sydney, Camden, New South Wales 2570, Australia.
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13
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Oporto B, Hurtado A. Emerging thermotolerant Campylobacter species in healthy ruminants and swine. Foodborne Pathog Dis 2011; 8:807-13. [PMID: 21438765 DOI: 10.1089/fpd.2010.0803] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Campylobacters other than Campylobacter jejuni or C. coli were isolated in 35% of 343 farms recently analyzed in northern Spain. This study was aimed at identifying at the species level the 120 isolates collected (21 ovine, 52 beef cattle, 44 dairy cattle, and 3 porcine) by species-specific polymerase chain reaction and 16S rRNA gene sequencing analysis. Thus, five species were identified: Campylobacter hyointestinalis (90 isolates), Campylobacter lanienae (12), Campylobacter fetus subsp. fetus (10), Campylobacter lari (1), and Campylobacter sputorum (1). Ambiguous results were obtained for six isolates. Phylogenetic analyses of the 16S rRNA gene sequence placed three of them (cattle isolates) as an intermediate clade between C. hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis and C. fetus, two ovine isolates formed a new clade clustering with Campylobacter concisus despite sharing higher similarity with Campylobacter mucosalis, and one porcine isolate shared similarly high homology with C. lanienae and C. hyointestinalis subsp. lawsonii. C. hyointestinalis was the predominant species, particularly in cattle, but it was also isolated from sheep and swine. C. lanienae was only found in sheep, C. fetus in cattle and sheep, and C. lari in a single dairy cattle farm. Although previously reported, the isolation of C. lari from cattle is not common, and this is the first report of C. lanienae and C. hyointestinalis in sheep. This study demonstrated the wide distribution in livestock of several emerging zoonotic Campylobacter species and provided valuable information on their host animal reservoirs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Beatriz Oporto
- Department of Animal Health, NEIKER-Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario, Derio, Bizkaia, Spain
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Vicente H, Amaral LD, Nunes A, Lorenzon C. ESCHERICHIA COLI, PRODUTORAS DE SHIGATOXINAS DETECTADAS EM FEZES DE BOVINOS LEITEIROS. ARQUIVOS DO INSTITUTO BIOLÓGICO 2010. [DOI: 10.1590/1808-1657v77p5672010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
RESUMO Este trabalho teve como objetivo determinar a prevalência de Escherichia coli produtoras de Shigatoxinas (STEC) e E. coli dos sorogrupos O157, O111 e O113 em rebanhos leiteiros do Município de Jaboticabal, SP, Brasil. A presença de sequências gênicas stx1, stx2e eae foi detectada pela reação em cadeia da polimerase (PCR) em amostras de fezes. Todas as amostras stx e eae positivas foram submetidas a uma nova reação de PCR para detecção das sequências rfb O157, O111 e O113. Observou-se uma alta prevalência (72,16%) de sequências stx nas fezes dos bovinos, sendo que o perfil genotípico encontrado com maior frequência foi o stx1 associado à stx2. Os coeficientes de prevalência das sequências rfb O157, O111 e O113 foram, respectivamente, 14,77%, 0,2% e 30,83%. Animais de todos os rebanhos (100%) apresentaram em suas fezes STEC e E. coli O113 e os sorogrupos O157 e O111 foram observados em 60,0% e 10,0% dos rebanhos, respectivamente. Concluiu-se que a alta prevalência de STEC detectada em rebanho leiteiro evidenciada nas fezes de bovinos desempenham um papel importante na contaminação ambiental e podem oferecerrisco de agravo à saúde pública.
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Fernández D, Rodríguez EM, Arroyo GH, Padola NL, Parma AE. Seasonal variation of Shiga toxin-encoding genes (stx) and detection of E. coli O157 in dairy cattle from Argentina. J Appl Microbiol 2009; 106:1260-7. [PMID: 19187162 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2008.04088.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To study the seasonal variation of Shiga toxin-encoding genes (stx) and to investigate the presence of Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) O157 in cattle belonging to five dairy farms from Argentina. METHODS AND RESULTS Rectal swab samples were collected from 360 dairy cows in each season and 115 and 137 calves in autumn and in spring, respectively. The stx were investigated by multiplex PCR and it was used as the indicator for STEC. Samples positives for stx were tested by PCR for eae-gamma1 of E. coli O157 and then subjected to IMS (immunomagnetic separation). In positive animals significant differences in the prevalence of stx between warm and cold seasons were detected. In warm seasons, stx1 + stx2 increased and stx1 decreased, independently of the animal category. The prevalence of STEC O157 in cows and calves were 0.2% and 0.8%, respectively. CONCLUSIONS This work provides new data about the occurrence of stx and STEC O157 in dairy herds from Argentina and suggests a relationship between the type of stx and season of year. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF STUDY The detection of STEC O157 and the seasonality of stx and its types provide an opportunity to improve control strategies designed to prevent contamination of food products and transmission animal-person.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Fernández
- Laboratorio de Inmunoquímica y Biotecnología, Tandil, Argentina
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16
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Kohari D, Sato S, Nakai Y. Does the maternal grooming of cattle clean bacteria from the coat of calves? Behav Processes 2008; 80:202-4. [PMID: 19056472 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2008.11.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2008] [Revised: 10/29/2008] [Accepted: 11/03/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The hygienic function of maternal grooming (MG) was investigated in beef cattle. Nine Japanese beef-type cow-calf pairs (six experimental pairs and three control pairs) were used in the fourth week after parturition. The bacteria on the calves' coats were compared numerically between before-MG samples of calves that had been deprived MG, and after-MG samples of those that had been allowed MG. Collected bacteria were incubated respectively on LB and DHL agars. In addition, the correlation between the quantity of MG and the decrement of bacteria was analysed. In the LB plate, bacteria were detected in all nine calves. The numbers of bacteria were significantly lower in the after-MG sample than in the before-MG sample (p<0.0001) in the experimental calves. In the DHL plate, bacteria were detected on two calves of experimental group in before-MG sample. In the after-MG sample, bacteria had mostly disappeared on the DHL plate. No correlation was observed between the quantity of MG and the decrement of bacteria. However, the decrement was greater than 90% in four calves and more than 70% in two calves in the experimental group. These results suggest that maternal grooming may have a bacteria-removal effect and contribute to hygienic maintenance of the calves' body.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daisuke Kohari
- College of Agriculture, Ibaraki University, Ami 4668-1, Inashiki-gun, Ibaraki-ken, Japan.
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Oporto B, Esteban JI, Aduriz G, Juste RA, Hurtado A. Escherichia coli O157:H7 and Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-producing E. coli in Healthy Cattle, Sheep and Swine Herds in Northern Spain. Zoonoses Public Health 2008; 55:73-81. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1863-2378.2007.01080.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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Ma M, Amano T, Enokimoto M, Yano T, Moe KK, Misawa N. Influence of pH of TSI medium on the detection of hydrogen sulfide production by Campylobacter hyointestinalis. Lett Appl Microbiol 2007; 44:544-9. [PMID: 17451523 DOI: 10.1111/j.1472-765x.2006.02097.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To examine the influence of pH of triple sugar iron (TSI) agar medium on the detection of hydrogen sulfide (H(2)S) production in Campylobacter hyointestinalis ssp. hyointestinalis (CHH). METHODS AND RESULTS TSI medium was adjusted by the addition in HCl or NaOH to cover a pH 6.0-9.0. One loopful of bacterial growth of CHH strain ATCC 35217 was inoculated into each different pH medium, and incubated at 37 degrees C under micro-aerobic conditions. The H(2)S production was not detectable even after incubation for 72 h in acidic medium pH; however, TSI with alkaline pH (8.0-9.0) allowed detection as early as 3 h of incubation. A total of 20 CHH strains from various animal sources were examined for the detection of H(2)S production in TSI medium with pH 9.0. The H(2)S was detected in all the strains examined within 12 h, and the judgment was unambiguous. CONCLUSION The results showed that the detection of H(2)S production by CHH was influenced by medium pH, and TSI with alkaline condition is highly sensitive. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY The findings of the present study suggest that TSI medium with alkaline pH contributes to fast detection and led to unambiguous judgment of H(2)S production by CHH.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Ma
- Department of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Agriculture, University of Miyazaki, Miyazaki, Japan
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19
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Oporto B, Esteban JI, Aduriz G, Juste RA, Hurtado A. Prevalence and strain diversity of thermophilic campylobacters in cattle, sheep and swine farms. J Appl Microbiol 2007; 103:977-84. [PMID: 17897201 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2672.2007.03328.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To determine prevalence and strain diversity of thermophilic campylobacters in healthy ruminants and swine. METHODS AND RESULTS Faecal samples collected from 343 herds (120 sheep, 124 beef cattle, 82 dairy cattle and 17 swine) in the Basque Country were screened in pools for thermophilic campylobacters. Two hundred and three herds were positive (67.1% dairy cattle, 58.9% beef cattle, 55.0% sheep and 52.9% pig), and species-specific PCR identified Campylobacter jejuni in 20.7% of the herds and Campylobacter coli in 6.4%. Campylobacter coli was isolated from the four production systems and was the most prevalent species in swine, where C. jejuni was not found. Other thermophilic campylobacters were found in all production systems. Four hundred and ninety-three animals from 11 positive herds were individually analysed, detecting significantly higher within-herd prevalences in dairy cattle (66.7%) and swine (57.8%) than in sheep (8.8%) or beef cattle (5.4%). flaA PCR-RFLP and pulsed-field gel electrophoresis analysis of a selection of isolates showed high genetic diversity. CONCLUSIONS Healthy swine, cattle and sheep are important reservoirs of thermophilic campylobacters of different species and high genetic diversity. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Efficient farm-based intervention measures are needed to reduce risk of infection. Non-C. jejuni/C. coli species should be monitored to investigate their significance for infection.
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Affiliation(s)
- B Oporto
- Department of Animal Health, NEIKER - Instituto Vasco de Investigación y Desarrollo Agrario, Derio, Bizkaia, Spain
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20
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Enokimoto M, Kubo M, Bozono Y, Mieno Y, Misawa N. Enumeration and identification of Campylobacter species in the liver and bile of slaughtered cattle. Int J Food Microbiol 2007; 118:259-63. [PMID: 17727990 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2007.07.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/11/2006] [Revised: 02/25/2007] [Accepted: 07/23/2007] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Healthy cattle are considered as reservoirs for a variety of Campylobacter species. To control the bacterial contamination in meat products, quantitative assessment of campylobacters in liver and gallbladder was carried out at an abattoir. Liver and bile samples were collected from 108 healthy beef cattle after evisceration and viable counts of campylobacters were determined by a direct-plating technique using modified Cefoperazone Charcoal Deoxycholate agar (mCCDA). The suspected colonies on the highest dilution plates were subjected to biochemical tests and PCR for identification. Campylobacter species were isolated from 49 (45%) bile and 6 (5%) liver specimens examined. Numbers of campylobacters in bile and liver ranged from log(10)3 to 7 (median 5) and log(10) 1 to 2 (median 1) cfu per ml and per g, respectively. These Campylobacter species were identified as C. fetus, C. jejuni, and C. coli. Multiple infections involving two species were observed in 16 cattle. C. fetus and C. jejuni were the predominant species in bile. Growth of C. fetus, C. jejuni, and C. coli in spiked bile samples revealed an initial exponential growth phase followed by a period with no apparent increase in colony count for 28 days. It appeared that these campylobacters can survive in bile for a long period. To determine transfer route of bacterial cells to the gallbladder, C. jejuni, C. fetus, or C. coli was inoculated intravenously in mice. The inoculated cells were recovered from bile, suggesting that the organism was transferred from the blood stream to bile duct in the liver. From these results, bile in cattle is considered to be an important contamination source of Campylobacter species in processing plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maiko Enokimoto
- Department of Veterinary Public Health, Faculty of Agriculture, Miyazaki University, 1-1 Gakuenkibanadai-nishi, Miyazaki 889-2192, Japan
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Foster AP, Otter A, Bolger VA. Yersinia pseudotuberculosis infection in a suckler calf in the United Kingdom: a case report. Vet J 2007; 175:139-40. [PMID: 17329133 DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2006.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2006] [Revised: 12/14/2006] [Accepted: 12/20/2006] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Enterocolitis caused by Yersinia pseudotuberculosis was identified by bacterial culture and histopathology in a 5-month old suckler calf. No other significant enteric pathogens were detected. Diagnosis of this condition can be missed if selective media are not used for bacteriology and if histopathology is not attempted or the alimentary tract is unsuitable for examination. This is the first case report of Y. pseudotuberculosis infection in a calf in the United Kingdom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiden P Foster
- Veterinary Laboratories Agency - Shrewsbury, Kendal Road, Harlescott, Shrewsbury, Shropshire, SY1 4HD, UK.
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Lefebvre B, Malouin F, Roy G, Giguère K, Diarra MS. Growth performance and shedding of some pathogenic bacteria in feedlot cattle treated with different growth-promoting agents. J Food Prot 2006; 69:1256-64. [PMID: 16786843 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-69.6.1256] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Eighty steers with a mean body weight of 319 kg were used in a study to evaluate the effect of a growth-promoting implant (trenbolone acetate plus estradiol benzoate), monensin, and oxytetracycline on the steer performance and shedding of some foodborne pathogens. The steers were allotted to one of eight treatment combinations according to a randomized complete block design with 16 pens of five animals. Rectal fecal samples were collected before treatment commenced and over a period of more than 24 weeks to study the influence of treatments on the intestinal microbiology of the animals. Results supported the beneficial effect of the hormonal implant on the performance of feedlot steers (average daily gain, feed efficiency, and fat thickness), on carcass characteristics (hot carcass weight, lean yield), and economic value of the carcasses (P < 0.01). The levels of Escherichia coli in feces were not affected by treatments but remained high throughout the study period. Antibiotic-resistant isolates of E. coli were more frequently found as the study progressed but were not associated with any specific treatment. Also independently of treatment, we observed a reduction over time in the shedding of Campylobacter and Yersinia during the feeding period, whereas the shedding of Enterococcus was increased. The results of this study confirmed the beneficial economic effect of growth-promoting agents in beef production and showed that the agents tested did not specifically affect the overall microbial evolution of the animal gut. However, the study also showed, independently of the growth promoter used, the shedding of Campylobacter, Yersinia, and antibiotic-resistant E. coli in the feedlot environment. These bacteria also may be found in the colonic tissue of steers at slaughter and might be a source of carcasses contamination.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brigitte Lefebvre
- Centre de Valorisation de la Diversité Microbienne, Département de Biologie, Faculté des Sciences, Université de Sherbrooke, Sherbrooke, Quebec, Canada J1K 2R
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Opinion of the Scientific Panel on Animal Health and Welfare (AHAW) on a request from the Commission related with the risks of poor welfare in intensive calf farming systems. EFSA J 2006; 4:366. [PMID: 32313579 PMCID: PMC7163428 DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2006.366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022] Open
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Turner J, Bowers RG, Begon M, Robinson SE, French NP. A semi-stochastic model of the transmission of Escherichia coli O157 in a typical UK dairy herd: dynamics, sensitivity analysis and intervention/prevention strategies. J Theor Biol 2006; 241:806-22. [PMID: 16515798 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2006.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2005] [Revised: 01/13/2006] [Accepted: 01/13/2006] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
When modelling the transmission of infection within small populations, it is necessary to consider the possibility of stochastic fade-out of infection. We present a semi-stochastic model for the transmission of a microparasite, in this case Escherichia coli O157, within a multigroup system, namely a typical UK dairy herd. The model includes birth, death, maturation, the dry/lactating cycle and various types of transmission (i.e. direct, pseudovertical (representing direct faecal-oral transmission between dam and calf within the first 48 h) and indirect (via free-living infectious units in the environment)). We present the results of our simulation study alongside data from empirical studies and also compare simulation results with those for the corresponding deterministic model. We then examine the effects of reducing shedding in the food-producing groups on outbreak size and prevalence of infection. A sensitivity analysis of herd prevalence reveals that, for both the deterministic and the semi-stochastic model, the prevalence within the herd is most sensitive to two parameters relating to the weaned group. This supports our previously reported conclusions for the deterministic model, which were based on an analysis of the next-generation matrix. The sensitivity analysis also indicates that herd prevalence is greatly affected by two other parameters relating to the lactating group. We conclude by discussing the possible efficacy of suggested intervention strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanne Turner
- Department of Veterinary Clinical Science and Animal Husbandry, The University of Liverpool, Leahurst, Neston, South Wirral CH64 7TE, UK.
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25
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Besser TE, Lejeune JT, Rice DH, Berg J, Stilborn RP, Kaya K, Bae W, Hancock DD. Increasing prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni in feedlot cattle through the feeding period. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71:5752-8. [PMID: 16204484 PMCID: PMC1265937 DOI: 10.1128/aem.71.10.5752-5758.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of Campylobacter jejuni in commercial feedlot cattle was monitored throughout the feeding period by repeated bacteriologic culture of feces. Fecal pats (n = 10) in 20 feedlot pens were sampled at 2-weeks interval beginning at entry into the feedlot and continuing until slaughter. The least-squares mean C. jejuni prevalence increased from 1.6% at the first sampling to 61.3% at the final sampling just prior to slaughter. Diverse C. jejuni pulsed-field gel electrophoresis macrorestriction profiles (MRP) were identified among the cattle isolates, but five prevalent MRP and minor variants accounted for >80% of all typed isolates. Chlorination of the water supplied to the water troughs of half of the pens did not affect C. jejuni prevalence in the cattle. Overall, the least-squares mean C. jejuni prevalences were 45.6 and 43.6% in chlorinated and nonchlorinated feedlot pens, respectively. The results of this study demonstrate apparent transmission of C. jejuni among feedlot cattle during the feeding period, unaffected by water chlorination, resulting in a high prevalence of C. jejuni excretion by cattle approaching slaughter.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas E Besser
- Department of Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Washington State University, Pullman, WA 99164, USA.
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26
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Grinberg A, Pomroy WE, Weston JF, Ayanegui-Alcerreca A, Knight D. The occurrence of Cryptosporidium parvum, Campylobacter and Salmonella in newborn dairy calves in the Manawatu region of New Zealand. N Z Vet J 2005; 53:315-20. [PMID: 16220123 DOI: 10.1080/00480169.2005.36566] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
AIM To determine the occurrence of Cryptosporidium parvum oocysts, Campylobacter spp and Salmonella spp in faecal samples taken from newborn dairy calves on 24 dairy farms in the Manawatu region of New Zealand. METHODS A cross-sectional study was conducted during the 2002 calving season. Faecal samples were collected from 185 newborn calves from a convenience sample of 24 dairy farms. The samples were tested microscopically for the presence of C. parvum oocysts, and bacteriologically for the presence of Campylobacter spp and Salmonella spp. RESULTS Infections with C. parvum were identified in 33/156 (21.2%) calves from 10 farms. More than 10(6) oocysts/g (OPG) faeces were detected in calves from four farms. Campylobacter spp were isolated from 58/161 (36%) calves from 18 farms; in particular, C. jejuni subsp jejuni was isolated from 11/161 (6.8%) calves from seven farms. Salmonellae were not detected. CONCLUSIONS Despite the short and concentrated calving pattern and the long interval between calving seasons characterising most dairy farms in New Zealand, C. parvum is widespread among calves. Campylobacter spp, especially C. jejuni, rapidly colonise the intestinal tract of newborn calves. RELEVANCE This study provided an estimate of the ecological impact of newborn dairy calves with regard to the potentially zoonotic enteric pathogens most frequently isolated from human gastrointestinal infections in New Zealand.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Grinberg
- Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences, Massey University, Private Bag 11222, Palmerston North, New Zealand.
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27
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Inglis GD, McAllister TA, Busz HW, Yanke LJ, Morck DW, Olson ME, Read RR. Effects of subtherapeutic administration of antimicrobial agents to beef cattle on the prevalence of antimicrobial resistance in Campylobacter jejuni and Campylobacter hyointestinalis. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71:3872-81. [PMID: 16000800 PMCID: PMC1169002 DOI: 10.1128/aem.71.7.3872-3881.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The influence of antimicrobial agents on the development of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) in Campylobacter isolates recovered from 300 beef cattle maintained in an experimental feedlot was monitored over a 315-day period (11 sample times). Groups of calves were assigned to one of the following antimicrobial treatments: chlortetracycline and sulfamethazine (CS), chlortetracycline alone (Ct), virginiamycin, monensin, tylosin phosphate, and no antimicrobial agent (i.e., control treatment). In total, 3,283 fecal samples were processed for campylobacters over the course of the experiment. Of the 2,052 bacterial isolates recovered, 92% were Campylobacter (1,518 were Campylobacter hyointestinalis and 380 were C. jejuni). None of the antimicrobial treatments decreased the isolation frequency of C. jejuni relative to the control treatment. In contrast, C. hyointestinalis was isolated less frequently from animals treated with CS and to a lesser extent from animals treated with Ct. The majority (> or =94%) of C. jejuni isolates were sensitive to ampicillin, erythromycin, and ciprofloxacin, but more isolates with resistance to tetracycline were recovered from animals fed Ct. All of the 1,500 isolates of C. hyointestinalis examined were sensitive to ciprofloxacin. In contrast, 11%, 10%, and 1% of these isolates were resistant to tetracycline, erythromycin, and ampicillin, respectively. The number of animals from which C. hyointestinalis isolates with resistance to erythromycin and tetracycline were recovered differed among the antimicrobial treatments. Only Ct administration increased the carriage rates of erythromycin-resistant isolates of C. hyointestinalis, and the inclusion of CS in the diet increased the number of animals from which tetracycline-resistant isolates were recovered. The majority of C. hyointestinalis isolates with resistance to tetracycline were obtained from cohorts within a single pen, and most of these isolates were recovered from cattle during feeding of a forage-based diet as opposed to a grain-based diet. The findings of this study show that the subtherapeutic administration of tetracycline, alone and in combination with sulfamethazine, to feedlot cattle can select for the carriage of resistant strains of Campylobacter species. Considering the widespread use of in-feed antimicrobial agents and the high frequency of beef cattle that shed campylobacters, the development of AMR should be monitored as part of an on-going surveillance program.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Inglis
- Agriculture & Agri-Food Canada Research Centre, 5403 1st Avenue S, Lethbridge, AB T1J 4B1, Canada.
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Kuhnert P, Dubosson CR, Roesch M, Homfeld E, Doherr MG, Blum JW. Prevalence and risk-factor analysis of Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli in faecal samples of organically and conventionally farmed dairy cattle. Vet Microbiol 2005; 109:37-45. [PMID: 15964720 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetmic.2005.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2004] [Revised: 02/05/2005] [Accepted: 02/07/2005] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Cattle are a natural reservoir for Shiga toxigenic Escherichia coli (STEC), however, no data are available on the prevalence and their possible association with organic or conventional farming practices. We have therefore studied the prevalence of STEC and specifically O157:H7 in Swiss dairy cattle by collecting faeces from approximately 500 cows from 60 farms with organic production (OP) and 60 farms with integrated (conventional) production (IP). IP farms were matched to OP farms and were comparable in terms of community, agricultural zone, and number of cows per farm. E. coli were grown overnight in an enrichment medium, followed by DNA isolation and PCR analysis using specific TaqMan assays. STEC were detected in all farms and O157:H7 were present in 25% of OP farms and 17% of IP farms. STEC were detected in 58% and O157:H7 were evidenced in 4.6% of individual faeces. Multivariate statistical analyses of over 250 parameters revealed several risk-factors for the presence of STEC and O157:H7. Risk-factors were mainly related to the potential of cross-contamination of feeds and cross-infection of cows, and age of the animals. In general, no significant differences between the two farm types concerning prevalence or risk for carrying STEC or O157:H7 were observed. Because the incidence of human disease caused by STEC in Switzerland is low, the risk that people to get infected appears to be small despite a relatively high prevalence in cattle. Nevertheless, control and prevention practices are indicated to avoid contamination of animal products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Kuhnert
- Institute of Veterinary Bacteriology, Laenggass-Str. 122, Vetsuisse Faculty, University of Bern, CH-3001 Bern, Switzerland.
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Bae W, Kaya KN, Hancock DD, Call DR, Park YH, Besser TE. Prevalence and antimicrobial resistance of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. from cattle farms in Washington State. Appl Environ Microbiol 2005; 71:169-74. [PMID: 15640184 PMCID: PMC544228 DOI: 10.1128/aem.71.1.169-174.2005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 88] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The prevalence of thermophilic Campylobacter spp. was investigated in cattle on Washington State farms. A total of 350 thermophilic Campylobacter isolates were isolated from 686 cattle sampled on 15 farms (eight dairies, two calf rearer farms, two feedlots, and three beef cow-calf ranches). Isolate species were identified with a combination of phenotypic tests, hipO colony blot hybridization, and multiplex lpxA PCR. Breakpoint resistance to four antimicrobials (ciprofloxacin, nalidixic acid, erythromycin, and doxycycline) was determined by agar dilution. Campylobacter jejuni was the most frequent species isolated (34.1%), followed by Campylobacter coli (7.7%) and other thermophilic campylobacters (1.5%). The most frequently detected resistance was to doxycycline (42.3% of 350 isolates). Isolates from calf rearer facilities were more frequently doxycycline resistant than isolates from other farm types. C. jejuni was most frequently susceptible to all four of the antimicrobial drugs studied (58.8% of 272 isolates). C. coli isolates were more frequently resistant than C. jejuni, including resistance to quinolone antimicrobials (89.3% of isolates obtained from calves on calf rearer farms) and to erythromycin (72.2% of isolates obtained from feedlot cattle). Multiple drug resistance was more frequent in C. coli (51.5%) than in C. jejuni (5.1%). The results of this study demonstrate that C. jejuni is widely distributed among Washington cattle farms, while C. coli is more narrowly distributed but significantly more resistant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wonki Bae
- Department of Microbiology, College of Veterinary Medicine and School of Agricultural Biotechnology, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea
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Mathiesen S, Mackie R, Aschfalk A, Ringø E, Sundset M. Chapter 4 Microbial ecology of the digestive tract in reindeer: seasonal changes. MICROBIAL ECOLOGY IN GROWING ANIMALS 2005. [DOI: 10.1016/s1877-1823(09)70037-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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Harvey RB, Droleskey RE, Sheffield CL, Edrington TS, Callaway TR, Anderson RC, Drinnon DLJ, Ziprin RL, Scott HM, Nisbet DJ. Campylobacter prevalence in lactating dairy cows in the United States. J Food Prot 2004; 67:1476-9. [PMID: 15270504 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-67.7.1476] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
The objective of the present study was to determine the prevalence of intestinal Campylobacter in lactating dairy cows from various regions of the United States. Participating commercial dairy farms were chosen at random and were part of a national survey to determine E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella prevalence in dairy cows. Farms had no previous history of Campylobacter problems. Fecal samples were collected rectally from 720 cows on farms in the northeast (four farms), in the desert southwest (three farms), and in the Pacific west (two farms). A minimum of 60 fecal samples per visit were collected from each farm. Thirty isolates were analyzed using the RiboPrinter Microbial Characterization System to obtain ribosomal RNA patterns. Twenty isolates were tentatively identified as Campylobacter jejuni, two as Campylobacter coli, three as Campylobacter spp., and five as unknown. Individual single-visit farm prevalence ranged from 0 to 10%. The disk diffusion method, employing 11 antibiotics, was used to test the antibiotic sensitivities of 27 of the isolates. Eight isolates were resistant to two or more antibiotics, 13 isolates were resistant to one antibiotic, and 6 were totally susceptible. Under the conditions of this study, the authors conclude that Campylobacter prevalence in lactating dairy cows in the United States is low, there is no difference in prevalence on the basis of geographical location, the predominant species is C. jejuni, and that the majority of these isolates are sensitive to antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Roger B Harvey
- Food and Feed Safety Research Unit, Southern Plains Area Research Center, Agricultural Research Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture, 2881 F&B Road, College Station, Texas 77845-4988, USA.
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Inglis GD, Kalischuk LD, Busz HW. A survey of Campylobacter species shed in faeces of beef cattle using polymerase chain reaction. Can J Microbiol 2004; 49:655-61. [PMID: 14735214 DOI: 10.1139/w03-087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based survey of campylobacters associated with faeces collected from 382 beef cattle was undertaken. To ensure the removal of PCR inhibitors present in faeces and determine if adequate extraction was achieved, faeces were seeded with internal control DNA (i.e., DNA designed to amplify with the Campylobacter genus primer set, but provide a smaller amplicon) before the extraction procedure. In only two samples (0.5%) were the internal control or Campylobacter genus amplicons not detected. In the remaining 380 faecal samples, Campylobacter DNA was detected in 83% of the faecal samples (80% of the faecal samples were positive for Campylobacter genus DNA, and 3% of the samples were negative for Campylobacter genus DNA but positive for DNA of individual species). The most frequently detected species was Campylobacter lanienae (49%), a species only recently connected to livestock hosts. Campylobacter jejuni DNA was detected in 38% of the faecal samples, and Campylobacter hyointestinalis and Campylobacter coli DNA were detected in 8% and 0.5% of the samples, respectively. Campylobacter fetus DNA was not detected. Twenty-four percent of the faecal samples contained DNA of at least two species of Campylobacter. Of these samples, the majority (81%) contained DNA of C. jejuni and C. lanienae. The results of this study indicate that beef cattle commonly release a variety of Campylobacter species into the environment and may contribute to the high prevalence of campylobacteriosis in humans inhabiting areas of intensive cattle production, such as southern Alberta. Furthermore, this study demonstrates the utility of using PCR as a rapid and accurate method for simultaneously detecting the DNA of a diverse number of Campylobacter species associated with bovine faeces.
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Affiliation(s)
- G D Inglis
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Research Centre, Lethbridge, AB, Canada.
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al-Saigh H, Zweifel C, Blanco J, Blanco JE, Blanco M, Usera MA, Stephan R. Fecal shedding of Escherichia coli O157, Salmonella, and Campylobacter in Swiss cattle at slaughter. J Food Prot 2004; 67:679-84. [PMID: 15083718 DOI: 10.4315/0362-028x-67.4.679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Fecal samples from 2,930 slaughtered healthy cattle were examined with the following goals: (i) to monitor the shedding of Escherichia coli O157, Salmonella, and Campylobacter in cattle; and (ii) to further characterize the isolated strains. The percentage of the 2,930 samples that tested positive for E. coli O157 by PCR was 1.6%. Thirty-eight strains from different animals that agglutinated with Wellcolex E. coli O157 were isolated. Of the six sorbitol-negative strains, five tested positive for stx2 genes (two times for stx2c and three times for stx2), and one strain tested positive for stx1 and stx2c genes. All sorbitol-negative strains belonged to the serotypes O157:H7- and O157:H7 and harbored the eae type gamma 1 and ehxA genes. The 32 sorbitol-positive strains tested negative for stx genes and belonged to the serotypes O157:H2, O157:H7, O157:H8, O157:H12, O157:H19, O157:H25, O157:H27, O157:H38, O157:H43, O157:H45, and O157:H-. All O157:H45 strains harbored the eae subtype alpha 1 and therefore seem to be atypical enteropathogenic E. coli strains. Whereas none of 1,000 examined samples was positive for Salmonella, 95 of 935 (10.2%) samples were positive for Campylobacter, and all strains were identified as C. jejuni. Sixteen Campylobacter strains were resistant to tetracycline, five were resistant to nalidixic acid/ciprofloxacin, four were resistant to streptomycin, and one was resistant to nalidixic acid/ciprofloxacin and streptomycin. Fecal shedding of zoonotic pathogens in slaughter animals is strongly correlated with the hazard of carcass contamination. Therefore, the maintenance of slaughter hygiene is of crucial importance.
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Affiliation(s)
- H al-Saigh
- Institute for Food Safety and Hygiene, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Zurich, Winterthurerstrasse 270, CH-8057 Zurich, Switzerland
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Minihan D, Whyte P, O'Mahony M, Fanning S, McGill K, Collins JD. Campylobacter spp. in Irish feedlot cattle: a longitudinal study involving pre-harvest and harvest phases of the food chain. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2004; 51:28-33. [PMID: 14995974 DOI: 10.1046/j.1439-0450.2003.00722.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The aim of this study was to investigate faecal shedding and transmission of Campylobacter spp. in cohorts of cattle within a feedlot, to assess subsequent contamination of carcasses with this pathogen and to identify risk factors associated with faecal shedding of Campylobacter spp. A cohort of 133 heifers housed in four adjacent pens was examined over a five and a half month period, from entering the feedlot to slaughter. A parallel investigation of individual rectal faecal samples and pen environmental samples were taken at monthly intervals from November to February. The entire outer and inner surfaces of a carcass side of each animal were swabbed immediately following slaughter. Campylobacter spp. were isolated from 322 (54%) of the 600 rectal faecal samples. Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli accounted for 69 and 29.7% of the isolate recovered, respectively. A total of 159 environmental samples were examined, of these Campylobacter spp. was isolated from 46 samples (29%). Campylobacter jejuni and C. coli accounted for 35 and 59% of these isolates, respectively. Campylobacter spp. was not isolated from any of the dressed carcasses. Logistic regression indicated prevalence of Campylobacter spp. faecal shedding within pens was positively correlated to the pen, the month of sampling and the Campylobacter spp. contamination status of the pen dividing bars and the water trough surface. Campylobacter spp. should be considered as a pathogen shed in the faeces of a substantial proportion of feedlot cattle. However, with good hygienic practice during harvest, a very low level of this pathogen can be achieved on dressed carcasses.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Minihan
- Department of Agriculture and Food, Abbotstown, Castleknock, Dublin 15, Ireland.
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Altekruse SF, Tollefson LK. Human campylobacteriosis: a challenge for the veterinary profession. J Am Vet Med Assoc 2003; 223:445-52. [PMID: 12930081 DOI: 10.2460/javma.2003.223.445] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sean F Altekruse
- Division of Cancer Epidemiology and Genetics, National Cancer Institute, 6120 Executive Blvd MSC 7234, Rockville, MD 20852, USA
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Inglis GD, Kalischuk LD. Use of PCR for direct detection of Campylobacter species in bovine feces. Appl Environ Microbiol 2003; 69:3435-47. [PMID: 12788747 PMCID: PMC161499 DOI: 10.1128/aem.69.6.3435-3447.2003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 114] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
This study reports on the use of PCR to directly detect and distinguish Campylobacter species in bovine feces without enrichment. Inhibitors present in feces are a major obstacle to using PCR to detect microorganisms. The QIAamp DNA stool minikit was found to be an efficacious extraction method, as determined by the positive amplification of internal control DNA added to bovine feces before extraction. With nested or seminested multiplex PCR, Campylobacter coli, C. fetus, C. hyointestinalis, and C. jejuni were detected in all fecal samples inoculated at approximately 10(4) CFU g(-1), and 50 to 83% of the samples inoculated at approximately 10(3) CFU g(-1) were positive. At approximately 10(2) CFU g(-1), C. fetus, C. hyointestinalis, and C. jejuni (17 to 50% of the samples) but not C. coli were detected by PCR. From uninoculated bovine feces, a total of 198 arbitrarily selected isolates of Campylobacter were recovered on four commonly used isolation media incubated at three temperatures. The most frequently isolated taxa were C. jejuni (152 isolates) and C. lanienae (42 isolates), but isolates of C. fetus subsp. fetus, Arcobacter butzleri, and A. skirrowii also were recovered (</=2 isolates per taxon). Considerable variability was observed in the frequency of isolation of campylobacters among the four media and three incubation temperatures tested. With genus-specific primers, Campylobacter DNA was detected in 75% of the fecal samples, representing an 8% increase in sensitivity relative to that obtained with microbiological isolation across the four media and three incubation temperatures tested. With nested primers, C. jejuni and C. lanienae were detected in 25 and 67% of the samples, respectively. In no instance was DNA from either C. coli, C. fetus, or C. hyointestinalis detected in uninoculated bovine feces. PCR was more sensitive than isolation on microbiological media for detecting C. lanienae (17%) but not C. jejuni. Campylobacters are a diverse and fastidious group of bacteria, and the development of direct PCR not only will increase the understanding of Campylobacter species diversity and their frequency of occurrence in feces but also will enhance the knowledge of their role in the gastrointestinal tract of livestock and of the factors that influence shedding.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Douglas Inglis
- Agriculture and Agri-Food Canada Research Centre, Lethbridge, Alberta T1J 4B1, Canada.
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Aschfalk A, Kemper N, Höller C. Bacteria of pathogenic importance in faeces from cadavers of free-ranging or corralled semi-domesticated reindeer in northern Norway. Vet Res Commun 2003; 27:93-100. [PMID: 12718503 DOI: 10.1023/a:1022802918630] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
There is little information on bacteria that have the potential to cause disease in reindeer husbandry. In this project, faecal samples from 35 free-ranging or corralled reindeer, adults and calves, that died in the winter of 2000 in northern Norway, were examined for the occurrence of Campylobacter spp., Clostridium perfringens, Listeria spp., Salmonella spp. and Yersinia spp. to evaluate the role of these microrganisms in loss and mortality in reindeer husbandry. In addition, 31 of these samples were examined for the occurrence of bacteria producing shigatoxin-1 and 2. C. perfringens was isolated in 20 (57.1%) of the faecal samples. In the free-ranging reindeer, 44% were positive carriers of C. perfringens and 90% of the corralled ones were positive for C. perfringens. In addition, the gene encoding for shigatoxin-1 was detected in one of the samples derived from a corralled reindeer. The other bacteria investigated were not found. Shigatoxin-1-producing bacteria were isolated for the first time from reindeer in Norway. However, no correlation between C. perfringens or shigatoxin-1-producing bacteria and mortality in the reindeer could be established.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Aschfalk
- Department of Arctic Veterinary Medicine, The Norwegian School of Veterinary Science, Stakkevollveien 23b, 9292 Tromsø, Norway.
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Hänninen ML, Sarelli L, Sukura A, On SLW, Harrington CS, Matero P, Hirvelä-Koski V. Campylobacter hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis, a common Campylobacter species in reindeer. J Appl Microbiol 2002; 92:717-23. [PMID: 11966912 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01574.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To study the prevalence of Campylobacter spp. in the faecal material of reindeer, and to identify the isolates by means of a polyphasic approach. In addition, to study the genetic diversity of Camp. hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis reindeer isolates by pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE). METHODS AND RESULTS The material, collected during the slaughter period in autumn 1998, comprised 399 faecal contents from the reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), a semi-domesticated, meat-producing ruminant of northern Finland. These samples came from 16 herds in the areas of eight reindeer slaughterhouses. Samples were cultured by methods suitable for isolation of fastidious Campylobacter species. Of all samples, 6% (24/399) were Campylobacter-positive. Phenotypic characteristics, SDS-PAGE protein patterns, dot blot DNA-DNA hybridization, 23S rDNA restriction fragment polymorphism analysis and PFGE identified the isolates as Camp. hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis. CONCLUSIONS Campylobacter hyointestinalis subsp. hyointestinalis was the only Campylobacter species isolated from reindeer in this study. The isolates showed high genomic diversity in PFGE with the restriction enzymes SmaI and KpnI. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY PFGE analysis is a useful subtyping method for epidemiological studies. Contaminated reindeer meat can be a source for human infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- M-L Hänninen
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Department of Food and Environmental Hygiene, University of Helsinki, Finland.
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Engvall EO, Brändström B, Gunnarsson A, Mörner T, Wahlström H, Fermér C. Validation of a polymerase chain reaction/restriction enzyme analysis method for species identification of thermophilic campylobacters isolated from domestic and wild animals. J Appl Microbiol 2002; 92:47-54. [PMID: 11849327 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2672.2002.01491.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
AIMS To compare and evaluate a polymerase chain reaction/restriction enzyme analysis (PCR/REA) method with standard phenotypic tests for the identification and differentiation of the thermophilic campylobacters Campylobacter jejuni, C. coli, C. lari and C. upsaliensis. METHODS AND RESULTS One hundred and eighty-two presumptive thermophilic campylobacters from 12 different animal species were tested by a recently published PCR/REA and standard phenotypic tests. By PCR/REA, 95% of the isolates were clearly identified as either one of the four thermophilic Campylobacter species or as not belonging to this group of organisms at all. By standard phenotyping, 174 of the 182 isolates were initially identified as either C. jejuni, C. coli, C. lari or C. upsaliensis. Additional genotypic tests and phenotyping showed that 52 of these identifications were either incorrect or unreliable. Of the C. jejuni isolates, 19% were identified as C. coli by initial phenotyping and 27 sheep isolates phenotyped as C. coli or C. lari were, in fact, arcobacters. CONCLUSIONS The PCR/REA was more reliable than standard phenotyping for the identification of thermophilic campylobacters from different animals. SIGNIFICANCE AND IMPACT OF THE STUDY Routinely used phenotypic tests often resulted in unreliable identifications, requiring additional testing. The PCR/REA, however, gave unequivocal results and was considered useful for the routine identification of thermophilic campylobacters from different animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- E O Engvall
- National Veterinary Institute, SE-751 89 Uppsala, Sweden.
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Enriquez C, Nwachuku N, Gerba CP. Direct exposure to animal enteric pathogens. REVIEWS ON ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH 2001; 16:117-131. [PMID: 11512628 DOI: 10.1515/reveh.2001.16.2.117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/23/2023]
Abstract
Humans have very close interactions with working, food-producing, and companion animals. According to the American Veterinary Medical Association, there are more than one hundred million cat and dog pets in the United States. Furthermore, non-traditional pets like reptiles and exotic birds are not unusual companion animals in households. In addition to sharing with animals our living and/or working space and time, we also share, unfortunately, many disease causing microorganisms. In the past few years, we have become aware that several enteric pathogens that were thought to be mostly restricted to animals are a major cause of human disease. Examples of such pathogens include the protozoan parasite Cryptosporidium parvum and bacteria such as Campylobacter spp. This review will examine the characteristics of zoonotic enteric pathogens including bacterial (Helicobacter spp., Campylobacter spp., Salmonella spp., and verotoxin-producing Escherichia coli); parasitic (Toxoplasma gondii, Giardia spp., Cryptosporidium spp.); and viral (rotavirus, norwalk-like virus, hepatitis E virus), and the status of our knowledge with regard to the impact of such pathogens on human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Enriquez
- Department of Soil, Water & Environmental Science, University of Arizona, Tucson 85721, USA.
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