Analgesic and antipyretic effects of Dodonaea angustifolia and Salvia africana-lutea

Antioxidant Activity of Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids from Dodonaea angustifolia Flower: HPLC Profile and PASS Prediction

Background. Dodonaea angustifolia is a known medicinal plant across East Arica. The flower of D. angustifolia is not well investigated in terms of phytochemistry and biological activities. This study aims to investigate the presence of flavonoids and phenolic acids in the flower of D. angustifolia and its antioxidant activity. Methods. Preliminary phytochemical screening was carried out using the standard protocols. Antioxidant activity evaluation using DPPH assay and total phenol content (TPC) and total flavonoid content (TFC) determinations in the flower extract were compared with the values of the leaf extract. UHPLC-DAD analysis was managed to develop the profile of the flower extract. Prediction of biological activity spectra for substances (PASS) was done using an online server for antioxidant and related activities. Results. Preliminary phytochemical screening and TPC and TFC values confirmed the presence of flavonoids and phenolic acids. From the HPLC analysis of flavonoids, quercetin, myricetin, rutin, and phenolic acids such as chlorogenic acid, gallic acid, and syringic acid were detected and quantified. The biological activity spectrum was predicted for the detected and quantified polyphenols. Conclusions. D. angustifolia flower is a rich source of flavonoids and phenolic acids, which are extractable and can be checked for further biological activity. It was possible to identify and quantify phenolic compounds through HPLC analysis in the methanol extract of D. angustifolia flower. The PASS biological activity prediction results showed that there were stronger antioxidant activities for the identified flavonoids. Future work will emphasize the isolation and characterization of active principles responsible for bioactivity.

Targeted HPTLC Profile, Quantification of Flavonoids and Phenolic Acids, and Antimicrobial Activity of Dodonaea angustifolia (L.f.) Leaves and Flowers

In East Africa, Dodonaea angustifolia (L.f.) is a well-known medicinal herb. Its leaf is primarily studied in light of its ethnobotanical use. In terms of phytochemistry and biological activity, its flower is not studied. In a prior study, our team looked into phytochemical screening, antioxidant activity, and total phenolic levels. This study aims to compare the profiles and biological activities of the leaf and flower samples of D. angustifolia and to present therapeutic alternatives. The leaf and flower sample powders were extracted with methanol using ultrasound-assisted extraction (UAE). HPTLC profile was obtained using CAMAG-HPTLC equipped with VisionCATS software. Antimicrobial agar well diffusion assay and minimum inhibition concentration (MIC) were determined. The leaf and flower extracts of D. angustifolia showed antibacterial activity with a MIC value of 20 µg/mL against Enterococcus faecalis and Listeria monocytogenes. Similarly, 40 µg/mL was found to be effective against Aspergillus flavus. D. angustifolia flower is a rich source of flavonoids and phenolic acids. Because of its antibacterial properties and profile, which are almost the same, the flower is emerging as a viable option for medicinal alternatives.

The traditional use of Southern African medicinal plants to alleviate fever and their antipyretic activities

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Multiple plant species are used traditionally in southern Africa to treat fever. This review summarises the traditional use, highlights promising plant species and focuses on validation studies to highlight future areas of research.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study aimed to critically review the use of southern African plants to alleviate fever. Additionally, an examination of research into those plants was undertaken to highlight gaps in the literature with the aim of stimulating further research in this field.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Ethnobotanical books, reviews and primary research studies were searched to identify plant species traditionally used to treat fever in southern Africa and to summarise the current knowledge and identify areas requiring further research. This study was non-biased and did not have any taxonomic preferences, nor did it favour any southern African healing systems over the others.

RESULTS

The traditional therapeutic uses of 203 southern African plant species to alleviate fever were recorded. Leaves and roots/bulbs/rhizomes were the most commonly used plant part, and they were most commonly prepared as decoctions or infusions and consumed orally. Notably, only twenty-two species (∼11% of the identified species) have been scientifically evaluated for antipyretic properties, with substantially fewer mechanistic studies evident.

CONCLUSIONS

Despite the availability of ethnobotanical records, the antipyretic properties of southern African medicinal plants are poorly reported. Indeed, the efficacy of most plants is yet to be verified and very few mechanistic studies are available.

Exploring the phytochemical variation of non-volatile metabolites within three South African Salvia species using UPLC-MS fingerprinting and chemometric analysis

The South African Salvia species, Salvia africana-lutea, S. lanceolata and S. chamelaeagnea, are widely used to treat fever and inflammation associated with skin and lung infections. The aim of this study was to explore the non-volatile secondary metabolites and the phytochemical variation within these lesser known species, to support product development and commercialisation. Chemical profiles of the methanol extracts of 81 wild-harvested samples were obtained using ultra performance-quadrupole-Time-of-Flight-mass spectrometry (UPLC-qToF-MS). Forty-one compounds, including caffeic acid, rosmarinic acid, carnosol, carnosic acid and ursolic acid, were detected and confirmed across the three species. Nineteen compounds were tentatively identified of which 14 have not been reported in these species. Principal component analysis revealed distinct clusters corresponding to the three species, confirming chemical differences. Marker compounds for each species were revealed using orthogonal projection to latent structures-discriminant analysis. Further chemometric analysis reflected a degree of intraspecies variation, although the chemistry within populations was mostly conserved. Potential chemotypes for each species were identified through unique compounds associated with each group. The concentrations of medicinally important metabolites, namely, rosmarinic acid, carnosol, carnosic acid and ursolic acid, were determined, using validated UPLC-PDA methods. Ursolic acid was present at levels up to 38.2 mg/g, confirming that these species are a rich source of this compound. No similar studies combining liquid chromatography with chemometric analysis, and utilising a large sample size from various habitats, have been reported for these three Salvia species. The results will guide selection of cultivars with the best attributes for the intended therapeutic application, thereby protecting wild populations from over-exploitation.

Volatiles and Antifungal-Antibacterial-Antiviral Activity of South African Salvia spp. Essential Oils Cultivated in Uniform Conditions

Spontaneous emissions of S. dentata Aiton and S. scabra Thunb., as well as the essential oil (EO) composition of the cited species, together with S. aurea L., were investigated. The chemical profile of the first two species is reported here for the first time. Moreover, in vitro tests were performed to evaluate the antifungal activity of these EOs on Trichophyton mentagrophytes, Microsporum canis, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, and Fusarium solani. Secondly, the EO antibacterial activity against Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Staphylococcus pseudointermedius was examined, and their antiviral efficacy against the H1N1 influenza virus was assessed. Leaf volatile organic compounds (VOCs), as well as the EOs obtained from the arial part of Salvia scabra, were characterized by a high percentage of sesquiterpene hydrocarbons (97.8% and 76.6%, respectively), mostly represented by an equal amount of germacrene D (32.8% and 32.7%, respectively). Both leaf and flower spontaneous emissions of S. dentata, as well as the EO composition, showed a prevalence of monoterpenes divided into a more or less equal amount of hydrocarbon and oxygenated compounds. Interestingly, its EO had a non-negligible percentage of oxygenated sesquiterpenes (29.5%). S. aurea EO, on the contrary, was rich in sesquiterpenes, both hydrocarbons and oxygenated compounds (41.5% and 33.5%, respectively). S. dentata EO showed good efficacy (Minimal Inhibitory Concentration (MIC): 0.5%) against M. canis. The tested EOs were not active against E. coli and S. aureus, whereas a low inhibition of S. dentata EO was observed on S. pseudointermedius (MIC = 10%). Once again, S. dentata EO showed a very good H1N1 inhibition; contrariwise, S. aurea EO was completely inactive against this virus. The low quantity of S. scabra EO made it impossible to test its biological activity. S. dentata EO exhibited interesting new perspectives for medicinal and industrial uses.

Novel plant inducers of PXR-dependent cytochrome P450 3A4 expression in HepG2 cells

The cytochrome P450 3A4 (CYP3A4) is the most abundant CYP450 enzyme involved in the metabolism of endogenous products and xenobiotics, including prescription drugs and herbals. Modulation of hepatic CYP3A4 gene expression via nuclear receptors, like pregnane X receptor (PXR), is a major cause of adverse effects like drug-unresponsiveness and toxicity. In the present study, ethanol extracts of 58 medicinal plants, belonging to 27 families, were evaluated for potential activities in CYP3A4 induction in HepG2 cells by reporter gene assay. For PXR-mediated CYP3A4 induction, a 50 μg/ml concentration was used for all non-cytotoxic plants extracts. Rifampicin (10 μM) and DMSO (0.1%) were used as standard inducer and untreated (negative) control, respectively. The comparative fold-induction of CYP34A by the plant extracts in relation to the untreated control was determined. As a result, Dodonaea angustifolia (2.62 fold; P < 0.0001) was found to be the most promising inducer of CYP3A4, followed by Euphorbia tirucalli (1.95 fold; P = 0.0004), Alternanthera pungens (1.74 fold, P = 0.0035), and Ficus palmata (1.65 fold; P = 0.0097). Further phytochemical characterizations of the active plants are therefore, warranted.

Bioactivities of Ethanolic Extract and its Fractions of Cistus laurifolius L. (Cistaceae) and Salvia wiedemannii Boiss. (Lamiaceae) Species

BACKGROUND

Cistus laurifolius L. (Cistaceae) and Salvia wiedemannii Boiss. (Lamiaceae) have been used for treatment of some illnesses in Turkish folk medicine. In the present study, the ethanolic extract and its fractions obtained using re-extraction by hexane (Hx), chloroform (CHCl3), butanol, and remaining-water (r-H2O) of C. laurifolius were screened for their in vitro bioactivities.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Activities were determined against both standard and the isolated strains of Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Proteus mirabilis, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Acinetobacter baumannii, Staphylococcus aureus, Enterococcus faecalis, as well as yeasts such as Candida albicans and Candida parapsilosis by microdilution method. Also, antiviral activity of C. laurifolius and S. wiedemannii extracts were tested on herpes simplex virus-1 (HSV-1) and parainfluenza-3 (PI-3) using Madin-Darby bovine kidney and vero cell lines.

RESULTS

Tested extracts of C. laurifolius (minimum inhibitory concentration 32 μg/mL) exerted a strong antimicrobial activity against Gram-negative bacteria of E. coli, P. mirabilis, K. pneumoniae, and A. baumannii.

CONCLUSION

The Hx extract of C. laurifolius (cytopathogenic effect of 32-8 μg/mL) had antiviral activity on PI-3. Also, the r-H2O, CHCl3, and ethanol extracts (16-<0.25 μg/mL) of S. wiedemannii had significant antiviral activity on HSV-1, same as control.

SUMMARY

The objective of this study was to evaluate the bioactivity of plant extracts used in folk medicineEthanolic extract and its fractions obtained using re-extraction by hexane (Hx), chloroform (CHCl3), butanol, and remaining-water (r-H2O) of Cistus laurifolius L. (Cistaceae) and Salvia wiedemannii Boiss. (Lamiaceae) were screened against both standard and the isolated strains of E. coli, P. aeruginosa, P. mirabilis, K. pneumoniae, A. baumannii, S. aureus, E. faecalis, C. albicans and C. parapsilosis by microdilution methodAntiviral activity were tested on HSV-1 and PI-3 using MDBK and Vero cell linesExtracts of C. laurifolius exerted a strong antimicrobial activity against E. coli, P. mirabilis, K. pneumoniae, and A. baumannii(MIC; 32 μg/mL)The Hx extract of C. laurifolius had antiviral activity on PI-3 (CPE; 32-8 μg/mL). Also, the r-H2O, CHCl3, and ethanol extracts (16-<0.25 μg/mL) of S. wiedemannii had significant antiviral activity.

Antiplasmodial activity of solvent fractions of methanolic root extract of Dodonaea angustifolia in Plasmodium berghei infected mice

Background

Malaria is one of the most important infectious diseases in the World. The choice for the treatment is highly limited, and several of these may eventually be lost or compromised due to drug resistance. The use of plant medicine in the treatment of malaria and its various presentations is a common practice in many countries of Africa where the disease is mostly endemic. Dodonaea angustifolia is traditionally used in Ethiopia for prophylaxis against malaria. The present study is attempted to evaluate the antimalarial activity of the solvent fractions of root extracts of D. angustifolia in P. berghei infected mice.

Methods

In this study, 4-days Peter’s suppressive test was used to determine parasite inhibition. Acute toxicity test was also conducted on the most active fraction according to Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) guidelines 425. Data was analyzed by using Windows SPSS version 16 and expressed as mean ± SD for each dose level. ANOVA followed by Post Hoc Tukey’s HSD was used to compare result between treatment and control groups. Students paired t-test was employed to test significance for the difference between initial and final results within the same group.

Results

All three fractions showed varying degrees of antiplasmodial activity. The n-butanol fraction displayed a relatively highest suppression of parasitaemia (67.51%) at an oral dose of 600 mg/kg. Lower doses, 200 mg/kg and 400 mg/kg, of the fraction also resulted in parasitaemia suppression of 38.02% and 55.85%, respectively. Chemosuppressive activity of chloroform and aqueous fractions was less compared to that of n-butanol fraction. All the three fractions displayed dose dependent significant (P < 0.001) antiplasmodial activity as compared to the control. Survival time was prolonged in case of n-butanol and chloroform fractions. No lethality to mice was seen with n-butanol fraction up to a dose of 2000 mg/kg.

Conclusion

All the three fractions possessed significant antiplasmodial activity as compared with the control group. n-butanol fraction was found to be the most active fraction with minimal toxicity and might contain potential lead molecule for the development of a new drug for treatment of malaria.

Fusarium inhibition by wild populations of the medicinal plant Salvia africana-lutea L. linked to metabolomic profiling

Background

Salvia africana-lutea L., an important medicinal sage used in the Western Cape (South Africa), can be termed a ‘broad-spectrum remedy’ suggesting the presence of a multiplicity of bioactive metabolites. This study aimed at assessing wild S. africana-lutea populations for chemotypic variation and anti-Fusarium properties.

Methods

Samples were collected from four wild growing population sites (Yzerfontein, Silwerstroomstrand, Koeberg and Brackenfell) and one garden growing location in Stellenbosch. Their antifungal activities against Fusarium verticillioides (strains: MRC 826 and MRC 8267) and F. proliferatum (strains: MRC 6908 and MRC 7140) that are aggressive mycotoxigenic phytopathogens were compared using an in vitro microdilution assay. To correlate antifungal activity to chemical profiles, three techniques viz. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS); Liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS) and ¹H Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) were employed. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was applied to the NMR data. The partial least squares-discriminant analysis (PLS-DA) was used to integrate LC-MS and NMR data sets. All statistics were performed with the SIMCA-P + 12.0 software.

Results

The dichloromethane:methanol (1:1; v/v) extracts of the plant species collected from Stellenbosch demonstrated the strongest inhibition of F. verticillioides and F. proliferatum with minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values of 0.031 mg ml^-1 and 0.063 mg ml^-1 respectively. GC-MS showed four compounds which were unique to the Stellenbosch extracts. By integrating LC-MS and ¹H NMR analyses, large chemotype differences leading to samples grouping by site when a multivariate analysis was performed, suggested strong plant-environment interactions as factors influencing metabolite composition. Signals distinguishing the Stellenbosch profile were in the aromatic part of the ¹H NMR spectra.

Conclusions

This study shows the potential of chemotypes of Salvia africana-lutea in controlling fungal growth and consequently mycotoxin production. Products for use in the agricultural sector may be developed from such chemotypes.

Chemical composition and biological activity of extracts from Salvia bicolor Desf. growing in Egypt

A petroleum ether extract (PEE) and a methanolic extract (ME) of aerial parts of Salvia bicolor Desf were prepared, and their chemical compositions and antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, analgesic and antimicrobial activities were evaluated. GC/MS analysis of the PEE revealed the presence of 20 compounds in the unsaponifiable matter, among which β-sitosterol and β-amyrin (constituting 24.75% and 15.62%, respectively) were the main constituents, and 21 fatty acids, with linolenic acid and erucic acid being the main fatty acid constituents (21.65% and 16.65%, respectively). HPLC/MS analysis of the methanol extract for individual phenolics revealed the presence of 14 phenolic acids; protocatchuic acid was predominant (75.22 mg/g dry sample), followed by p-coumaric, gallic and synergic acids (70.27, 68.26 and 54.38 mg/g dry weight, respectively). HPLC/MS analysis of flavonoid contents revealed the presence of five flavonoid compounds, among which luteolin 7-O-glucoside and apigenin were the major constituents (120.25 mg/100 g dry sample and 88.48 mg/100g dry sample, respectively). The antioxidant activities of both extracts were evaluated using the 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay, and the total antioxidant capacity was determined in terms of GAE (gallic acid equivalents). Anti-inflammatory and analgesic activities were evaluated using the rat paw edema and hot plate testing methods, respectively. The antimicrobial activities of both the PEE and ME were examined by means of the disk-diffusion method. The Salvia bicolor PEE and ME exhibited significant antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, and analgesic properties, in addition to antimicrobial effects against the selected microorganisms.

Polyphenolic profile and biological activity of Salvia splendens leaves

Objectives

The aim of this study was to investigate a new flavone triglycoside, together with eleven phenolic metabolites from 80% aqueous methanol extract of S. splendens leaves (AME) and assessment of its hypoglycemic and antiinflammatory activities along with in vitro antioxidant effect.

Methods

The phenolic composition of S. splendens leaves was analyzed using UV, 1D and 2D NMR and negative ESI-MS spectroscopy. Hypoglycemic activity of AME was assessed by measuring blood glucose in streptozotocin induced-diabetic rats. Antiinflammatory activity was evaluated using the carrageenan-induced paw oedema test. Antioxidant activity was evaluated in vitro using DPPH test.

Key findings

Twelve phenolic metabolites including three phenolic acids, namely caffeic acid 1, rosmarinic acid 2 and methyl rosmarinate 3; four flavone glycosides viz the new compound luteolin 7-O-(4″,6″-di-O-α-L-rhamnopyranosyl)-β-D-glucopyranoside 4, apigenin 7-O-β-D-rutinoside 5, cosmosiin 6 and cinaroside 7, together with four flavones aglycone, luteolin 8, apigenin 9, pedalitin 10 and crisiliol 11 in addition to one coumarin, 6,7-dihydroxycoumarin 12 were isolated from the leaves of S. splendens Sellow ex Roem & Schult. The AME of S. splendens was non toxic to mice up to 5 g/kg b.wt. it exhibited a significant hypoglycemic activity at 250 and 500 mg/kg as compared with control pre-drug (zero time) for each group as well as the diabetic control. Moreover, AME exhibited a significant antiinflammatory activity only at 1000 mg/kg in comparison to indomethacin. Finally, AME exhibited a marked significant scavenging activity against DPPH; the maximum reactive reaction rate after 5 min was 62.9, 82.5, 83.7, 84.3 and 85.1% for the concentrations 10, 20, 30, 40 and 50 mg/ml, respectively in comparison to L-ascorbic acid (86.8%).

Conclusions

This is the first study reporting the identification of a new flavone triglycoside, along with eleven known phenolic metabolites from AME of S. splendens. It showed significant hypoglycemic and antiinflammatory effects in dose dependant manner. Moreover it showed an in vitro antioxidant activity.

Investigation of the extraction process and phytochemical composition of preparations of Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Oily substances extracted by a crude process from the stem including its bark (hereafter referred to as the stem) of Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq. has been used by practitioners of traditional Indian medicine to treat inflammation, pain and other musculoskeletal disorders.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The aim of this study is to understand the scientific phenomena behind the process adopted by traditional practitioners for extraction and to establish the principle of extraction process by a simulated scientific method. The study also investigates the phyto-chemical composition of the extracts and compares the simulated extract with the traditional extract.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The traditional method was subjected to a detailed analysis, and it was identified as a crude equivalent of pyrolysis. The process was simulated under controlled conditions in a self-fabricated prototype pyrolyser. The extracts from both methods were compared for their compositional identity and phytochemistry using FT-IR and GC-MS.

RESULTS

The results show that in both the cases, the presence of dihydroxy, dimethyl and other substituted catechols, which are postulated as pyrolysate derivatives of the anti-spasmodic flavonoids quercetin, rutin, kaempferol and sakuranetin.

CONCLUSION

The applied principle of extraction is identified as slow pyrolysis, which is supported by the visual and chemical similarities of the extracts from both methods. The phyto-chemical analysis indicates the presence of anti-spasmodic chemicals in the extract from the stem of Dodonaea viscosa (L.) Jacq.; these chemicals are likely the active substances in the treatment of inflammation, pain and other musculoskeletal disorders, and the research substantiates the stem's historical use by traditional practitioners.

Evaluation of the anti-inflammatory properties of Dodonaea polyandra, a Kaanju traditional medicine

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Extracts of the medicinal plant species Dodonaea polyandra were investigated as part of a collegial research partnership between Northern Kaanju traditional owners represented by Chuulangun Aboriginal Corporation (centred on the Wenlock and Pascoe Rivers, Cape York Peninsula, Queensland, Australia) and university-based researchers. D. polyandra, known as "Uncha" in Kaanju language, is used in Northern Kaanju Traditional Medicine for relief from pain associated with toothache and related ailments. The species has a restricted distribution in Cape York Peninsula and there has been no previous Western scientific investigation of its pharmacology or chemistry.

AIM OF THE STUDY

The current study investigates the anti-inflammatory effects of several extracts from D. polyandra.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Phytochemical screening was conducted using TLC. Anti-inflammatory effects of leaf extracts were determined using an acute mouse ear oedema model induced by croton oil and 12-o-tetradecanoylphorbol-13-acetate (TPA) chemical irritants.

RESULTS

Flavonoid and terpenoid secondary compounds were detected in leaf extracts of D. polyandra. Non-polar hexane and methylene chloride/methanol extracts showed potent inhibition of inflammation in TPA-induced mouse ear oedema by 72.12 and 79.81%, respectively, after 24 h at 0.4 mg/ear.

CONCLUSION

In a mouse model of acute inflammation, this study revealed that leaf extracts of D. polyandra possess significant anti-inflammatory potential. These results contribute to a Western scientific understanding of the ethnopharmacological use of the plant in Northern Kaanju Medicine for reducing tooth-related pain.

The effect of Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia on Candida albicans proteinase and phospholipase production and adherence to oral epithelial cells

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study investigated effect of a crude extract of Dodonaea viscosa on the proteinase and phospholipase production and adherence to epithelial cells by Candida albicans isolated from HIV positive and HIV negative patients.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Twenty Candida albicans strains isolated from HIV positive and 20 from HIV negative patients were investigated. The isolates were exposed to subinhibitory concentration of crude plant extract and adherence, proteinase and phospholipase production were assessed. The results were analysed using Student's t-test and a two-way ANOVA.

RESULTS

Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia inhibited the adherence of Candida albicans to oral epithelial cells (p=<0.01) but no significant effect of the plant extract on proteinase and phospholipase production was observed. Results from Candida albicans strains isolated from HIV positive and HIV negative patients were similar.

CONCLUSIONS

Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia inhibited the adherence of Candida albicans to oral epithelial cells, which is the initial step of colonization in the infection process. This plant has a therapeutic potential at subinhibitory concentration.

South African Salvia species: a review of biological activities and phytochemistry

The genus Salvia (sage) belongs to the Lamiaceae and encompasses 900 species worldwide of which ca. 26 indigenous species are found in southern Africa. Salvia is the largest genus in this family and constitutes almost one quarter of the Lamiaceae. In South Africa, the majority of Salvia species are distributed predominantly in the Cape region. Salvia species are used in many parts of the world to treat various conditions. Many sages, if not all, form an integral part of traditional healing in South Africa particularly in regions where they occur in abundance. Several species are used to treat microbial infections, cancer, malaria, inflammation, loss of memory and to disinfect homes after sickness. Despite the extensive traditional use and the general interest in phytoconstituents of Salvia it remains ironic that research on the South African counterparts has until recently been neglected. The review aims to collate recent research results on the phytochemistry and pharmacological properties of indigenous species. Bio-active compounds with antiplasmodial and antibacterial activities have been isolated and structurally elucidated from Salvia chamelaegnea, Salvia radula and Salvia verbenaca. The essential oil composition of Salvia showed the dominance of monoterpene hydrocarbons, oxygen-containing monoterpenes and oxygen- containing sesquiterpenes. Salvia runcinata is identified as an alternative source of natural alpha-bisabolol. Many pharmacological activities are summarised (anti-oxidant, antimicrobial, antiplasmodial, analgesic, antipyretic, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive) as a first attempt to provide scientific support for past and present local traditional uses.

Antifungal activity of the plant Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia on Candida albicans from HIV-infected patients

was to determine the minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and the time taken by Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia (PLE) a South African medicinal plant, chlorhexidine gluconate (CHX) and triclosan (TRN) to kill Candida albicans. 41 strains of Candida albicans were investigated, 20 from HIV-positive patients, 20 from HIV-negative subjects and Candida albicans ATCC 90028. The MICs of an acetone extract of PLE, CHX and TRN were measured using a microtitre double dilution technique, and the time taken to kill 99.5% of the strains was determined. The MICs of PLE, CHX and TRN were 6.25-25, 0.008-0.16 and 0.0022-0.009 mg/ml, respectively. PLE killed all the test strains within 30s and CHX 40% of the isolates from HIV-positive patients and 20% of strains from HIV-negative subjects in 1 min. During the same time TRN killed 55% and 35% of isolates from HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients. Dodonaea viscosa var. angustifolia has antifungal properties and is more effective than commercially available mouthrinses.

Bioactive diterpenes from Orthosiphon labiatus and Salvia africana-lutea

The known (+)-trans-ozic acid (1) and two new labdane diterpenoids (2 and 3) have been isolated from an ethanol extract of Orthosiphon labiatus. The structures of 2 and 3 were established mainly by 1D and 2D NMR spectroscopic means. The ethanolic extract of Salvia africana-lutea afforded the known abietane diterpenoids carnosol (4), rosmadial (5), and carnosic acid (characterized as its derivative 6). Compounds 3 and 6 exhibited MICs of 157 and 28 microM, respectively, against Mycobacterium tuberculosis, while 2 and 6 showed cytotoxic activity with IC50 82 and 69 microM, respectively, against a breast (MCF-7) human cancer cell line.

Bioactive triterpenoids from Salvia species

Salvia species are important medicinal and culinary plants, and they have been the subject of numerous chemical and biological studies. The bioactive triterpenoids of Salvia species, reported in the literature to date, are reviewed. About 200 triterpenoids, almost 80 of which are new, isolated, and characterized from about 100 Salvia species, are presented herein. In addition to the diverse biological activities of the pure triterpenoids, studies on biological activity of extracts of Salvia species are also described.

The pharmacological effects ofSalvia species on the central nervous system

Salvia is an important genus consisting of about 900 species in the family Lamiaceae. Some species of Salvia have been cultivated world wide for use in folk medicine and for culinary purposes. The dried root of Salvia miltiorrhiza, for example, has been used extensively for the treatment of coronary and cerebrovascular disease, sleep disorders, hepatitis, hepatocirrhosis, chronic renal failure, dysmenorrhea, amenorrhea, carbuncles and ulcers. S. officinalis, S. leriifolia, S. haematodes, S. triloba and S. divinorum are other species with important pharmacological effects. In this review, the pharmacological effects of Salvia species on the central nervous system will be reviewed. These include sedative and hypnotic, hallucinogenic, skeletal muscle relaxant, analgesic, memory enhancing, anticonvulsant, neuroprotective and antiparkinsonian activity, as well as the inhibition of ethanol and morphine withdrawal syndrome.

The in vitro pharmacological activities and a chemical investigation of three South African Salvia species

Salvia species (sage) are well known in folk medicine throughout the world. In South Africa sage is used against fever and digestive disorders. Three closely related South African species (Salvia stenophylla, Salvia repens and Salvia runcinata) were investigated for their anti-oxidant (DPPH assay); anti-inflammatory (5-lipoxygenase and cyclo-oxygenase assays); antimalarial (tritiated hypoxanthine incorporation assay); antimicrobial (disc diffusion and micro-dilution assays) properties and toxicity profile (tetrazolium-based assay). The solvent extracts exhibited anti-oxidant, antimalarial and antibacterial and poor anti-inflammatory properties. The essential oils exhibited anti-inflammatory and antimalarial properties, but displayed poor anti-oxidant and antimicrobial activity. The extract of Salviastenophylla and the essential oil of Salvia runcinata displayed the highest toxicity profile. Overall, Salvia runcinata displayed the most favorable activity of all three taxa tested with an IC(50) value of 6.09 (anti-oxidant); 29.05 (antimalarial) and 22.82 microg/ml (anti-inflammatory). Analytical procedures (GC-MS and HPLC-UV) were employed to generate chromatographic profiles for the essential oils and solvent extracts respectively. The HPLC analysis revealed the presence of rosmarinic acid in all three taxa while carnosic acid was only present in Salvia repens and Salvia stenophylla. The GC-MS analysis showed that oils were qualitatively and quantitatively variable. beta-Caryophyllene was present in large amounts in all three taxa. Other components present include camphor, alpha-pinene and alpha-bisabolol. The results of the in vitro pharmacological activities provide a scientific basis to validate the use of these Salvia species in traditional medicine in South Africa.

Quality assessment of South African herbal medicines by means of HPLC fingerprinting

An estimated 70% of South Africans regularly use traditional plant medicines. Incorporation of these medicines within the formal health care system, which is the stated intention of the Health Ministry, requires the establishment of standards for quality control. Except in the case of a handful of South African plant species, such standards are lacking. Of central importance with respect to quality control is correct identification of the species concerned, whether in the fresh, dried or powdered state. In cases where botanical identification is impossible, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) with diode array detection (DAD), offers an alternative qualitative profile and is being increasingly used for the authentication of crude drugs or their extracts. As a contribution to establishing quality standards for South African plant species used as traditional medicines, HPLC-DAD "fingerprints" of 60 commonly-used species have been generated in our laboratory. One of these species is presented here, together with UV spectra of individual components represented by major peaks in the HPLC profiles.

Anti-inflammatory and analgesic properties of the leaf extracts and essential oil of Lavandula angustifolia Mill

Extracts obtained from the leaves of Lavandula angustifolia Mill. (Lamiaceae) are used in Iranian folk medicine as remedies for the treatment of various inflammatory diseases. For evaluation of its probable analgesic and anti-inflammatory effects, hydroalcoholic extract, polyphenolic fraction and essential oil of the leaves of the herb were prepared and their analgesic effects were studied in mice using formalin and acetic acid-induced writhing tests. Carrageenan test in rats was used for assessment of anti-inflammatory activity of above-mentioned fractions. Results showed that while the hydroalcoholic extract (400-1600 mg/kg, p.o.) inhibited only the second phase of formalin test, the polyphenolic fraction (800 and 1600 mg/kg, p.o.) and essential oil (100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) suppressed both phases. In acetic acid-induced writhing test, polyphenolic fraction (400 and 800 mg/kg, p.o.) and essential oil (100 and 200 mg/kg, p.o.) reduced the number of abdominal constrictions. Essential oil at a dose of 200mg/kg also inhibited carrageenan-induced paw edema. Results of the present study confirm the traditional use of Lavandula angustifolia for the treatment of painful and inflammatory conditions and calls for further investigations to determine the active chemical constituent(s).