Kalopanaxsaponin A from Kalopanax pictus, a potent antioxidant in the rheumatoidal rat treated with Freund's complete adjuvant reagent

Integrative pharmacology powers the detection of active components and mechanism underlying Wang Bi granules in rheumatoid arthritis

In China, Wang Bi Granule (WBG)², composed of 16 herbal and 1 animal-based compounds, is used for clinical treatment of the "Wang Bi" syndrome, commonly referred to as later rheumatoid arthritis (RA) in modern medicine. It is also used in the treatment of ankylosing spondylitis, tuberculous arthritis, and Kashin-Beck disease, which are characterized by joint pain and swelling deformation. However, its pharmacological mechanisms remain unknown. We aimed to characterize the chemical components in WBG and examine the underlying mechanism for RA treatment using integrative pharmacological strategy, including chemical composition detection, efficacy evaluation, and mechanism exploration. We employed UPLC-QTOF-MS/MS to describe the chemical profile of WBG. TNF-α-stimulated RAW264.7 cells were used to simulate the inflammatory processes in RA and evaluate the anti-inflammatory effects of WBG. Network pharmacology was used to determine the mechanism underlying WBG action in RA. A total of 278 chemical components were identified or tentatively characterized. The water extract of WBG improved the imbalance in inflammation in TNF-α-stimulated RAW264.7 cells by regulating 179 differential genes. 55 key active constituents were obtained based on the interactions among "components" targets, RA-related genes, and differential genes (WBG vs TNF-α group) which may ameliorate RA by regulating 161 hub genes primarily involved in inflammation-related pathways. The present study, for the first time, employed integrative pharmacology to characterize the chemical profile of WBG and elucidate its mechanism of action against RA through an inflammation-immune regulatory system.

Chondroprotective Effects of a Standardized Extract (KBH-JP-040) from Kalopanax pictus, Hericium erinaceus, and Astragalus membranaceus in Experimentally Induced In Vitro and In Vivo Osteoarthritis Models

The aim of this study was to investigate the chondroprotective effect of a standardized extract (KBH-JP-040) of the Korean traditional herbs Kalopanax pictus Castor-Aralia, Hericium erinaceus (Bull.) Persoon, and Astragalus membranaceus Schischkin on in vivo and in vitro osteoarthritis (OA) models. Cultured rat chondrocytes were pre-treated with KBH-JP-040 (50, 100 and 200 μg/mL) for 1 h, then recombinant human IL-1α (rhIL-1α) for 24 h. For the in vivo model, rabbits (n = 60) were equally divided into experimental groups: normal control (NC), a collagenase-induced OA group, and OA groups treated with KBH-JP-040 (75, 100, and 150 mg/kg body weight) and celecoxib (Cx, 100 mg/kg) orally for 28 days. Treatment with KBH-JP-040 significantly attenuated inflammatory cytokines and matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs), suppressed the expression of IκBα, NF-κB, and JNK/p38 mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase, and upregulated aggrecan and collagen type-II expression in rhIL-1α-stimulated chondrocytes. Furthermore, the serum and synovial levels of inflammatory cytokines of rabbits also decreased in the treatment groups when compared with the OA group. Improved magnetic resonance imaging and histopathological findings further confirmed the therapeutic efficacy of KBH-JP-040 against OA. In conclusion, these results indicate that KBH-JP-040 possesses chondroprotective effects, suppressing inflammation and MMPs, and downregulating IκBα, NF-κB, and JNK/p38 MAP kinase-signaling pathways. This might be a potential therapeutic candidate for OA treatment.

The treatment of rheumatoid arthritis using Chinese medicinal plants: From pharmacology to potential molecular mechanisms

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a common worldwide public health problem. Traditional Chinese Medicine (TCM) achieved some results to some extent in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis (RA). Especially in China, TCM formulas are used in the clinic because of their advantages. Some of these TCM formulas have been used for thousands of years in ancient China, they pays much attention to strengthening healthy qi, cleaning heat, and wet, activating blood, etc. So TCM in anti-RA drug is considered as a simple and effective method. In addition, TCM are also traditionally used as extracts and many Chinese herbs which are considered to be effective for RA. With the advancement of technologies and research methods, researchers have devoted themselves to exploring new therapeutic materials from troves of TCM. The components of TCM are identified and purified, which include alkaloids, coumarins, flavonoids, saponins and so on. However, little or no review works are found in the research literature on the anti-RA drugs from TCM. The present review aims to provide systematically reorganized information on the ethnopharmacology, phytochemistry and pharmacology of TCM used traditionally against RA. The information recorded in this review will provide new directions for researchers in the future.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Relevant scientific literatures were collected from Chinese traditional books and Chinese Pharmacopoeia. Several important pharmacology data, clinical observations, animal experiments on effects of anti-RA drugs from TCM and their mechanisms were extracted from a library and electric search (Pubmed, PubChem Compound, Science Direct, Spring Link, Elsevier, Web of Science, CNKI, Wan Fang, Bai du, The Plant List, etc.). We collected information published between 2002 and 2015 on Chinese medicine in the treatment of RA. Information was also acquired from local classic herbal literature, conference papers, government reports, and PhD and MSc dissertations.

RESULTS

This review mainly introduces the current research on anti-RA TCM formulas, extracts and compounds from TCM, pharmacological data and potential mechanisms (inhibit osteoclast proliferation, suppress fibroblast-like synoviocytes (FLSs) growth, decrease the expression of inflammatory cytokines, blocking signal pathways, etc.).

CONCLUSIONS

TCM, as a multi-component and multi-target approach, which is a perfect match with the holistic concept of systems biology, is applicable in the treatment of RA. The synergistic connections of Chinese herbs and mechanisms of related active compounds on RA increase the trust for TCM. TCM as alternative remedies for RA not only has an important position in the world market, but also has an irreplaceable role in the treatment of RA in future.

Standardized extract of Vitex doniana Sweet stalls protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation and DNA fragmention in acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Vitex doniana fruits are locally used in Nigeria as a remedy in the treatment of jaundice and liver related disease. The effect of methanolic extract of Vitex doniana fruits on acetaminophen induced protein oxidation, lipid peroxidation and DNA fragmentation was investigated in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Antioxidant activity of the extract (0.2-1.0mg/mL) was investigated in vitro using 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) radical, superoxide ion, hydrogen peroxide, hydroxyl radical and ferric ion reducing system. Vitex doniana extract at 1.0mg/mL scavenged DPPH, superoxide ion, hydrogen peroxide, and hydroxyl radical by 86%, 78%, 80% and 72% respectively, it also reduced ferric ion significantly. Hepatoprotective effect of Vitex doniana fruits was monitored in acetaminophen-induced hepatotoxicity in mice.

RESULTS

Acetaminophen-mediated alterations in serum alkaline phosphatase, alanine aminotransferase, aspartate aminotransferase, albumin and total bilirubin levels in mice were significantly (P<0.05) attenuated by the extract. Similarly, acetaminophen-mediated decrease in activities of superoxide dismutase, catalase, glutathione peroxidase, glutathione reductase and glucose 6-phosphate dehydrogenase was significantly (P<0.05) attenuated in the liver of mice. Increased levels of conjugated dienes, lipid hydroperoxides, malondialdehyde, protein carbonyl and fragmented DNA were significantly (P<0.05) lowered by methanolic extract of Vitex doniana fruits.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, the results of this study show that Vitex doniana fruits possess antioxidant properties and halted acetaminophen-mediated oxidative rout on cellular proteins, lipids and DNA, made possible by β-sitosterol, platycodin D, apigenin, saikosaponin, chrysin and ellagitanin in the extract.

HPLC-ESI-MS/MS validation and pharmacokinetics of kalopanaxsaponin A in rats

A new LC-MS/MS method was developed and validated for the analysis of kalopanaxsaponin A in rat plasma.

Anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial properties of pyrroloquinazoline alkaloids from Adhatoda vasica Nees

Adhatoda vasica Nees, Acanthaceae, is well known plant in Ayurveda and Unani medicine. The purpose of this study was to characterize the most bioactive phytochemicals viz., vasicine, vasicinone, vasicine acetate, 2-acetyl benzyl amine, vasicinolone present in the chloroform fraction having anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities. The anti-inflammatory activity was tested by using carrageenan and CFA-model induced paw oedema. The antimicrobial activity of isolated compounds was assessed by using the microdilution method. The observed results revealed that vasicine showed most potent anti-inflammatory effects (59.51%) at the dose of 20.0mg/kg at 6h after carrageenan injection and maximum inhibition rate was observed of vasicinone (63.94%) at the dose of 10.0mg/kg at 4 days after CFA injection. The strong antibacterial activity was exhibited by vasicine at 20μg/ml dose against E. coli and also demonstrated maximum antifungal activity against C. albicans at the dose of >55μg/ml. All the five alkaloids demonstrated significant anti-inflammatory and antimicrobial activities.

Prevention of rotavirus infections in vitro with aqueous extracts of Quillaja Saponaria Molina

BACKGROUND

Rotavirus is the leading cause of severe diarrhea disease in newborns and young children worldwide, estimated to be responsible for over 300,000 childhood deaths every year, mostly in developing countries. Rotavirus-related deaths represent approximately 5% of all deaths in children younger than 5 years of age worldwide. Saponins are readily soluble in water and are approved by the US FDA for inclusion in beverages intended for human consumption. The addition of saponins to existing water supplies offers a new form of intervention into the cycle of rotavirus infection. We believe that saponins will 'coat' the epithelium of the host's small intestine and prevent attachment of rotavirus.

DISCUSSION

This experiment provides in vitro data for the possibility of including saponin in drinking water to prevent infections of rotavirus. We demonstrate that microgram amounts of extract, while exhibiting no cell cytotoxicity or direct virucidal activity, prevent rotavirus from infecting its host cells. In addition, the presence of residual amounts of extract continue to block viral infection and render cells resistant to infection for at least 16 h after the removal of the extract from the cell culture media.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate that two Quillaja extracts possess strong antiviral activity at concentrations more than 1000-fold lower than concentrations exhibiting cell cytotoxicity. Extract concentrations as high as 1000 μg/ml are not cytotoxic, but concentrations as low as 1.0 μg/ml are able to block rotavirus and reovirus attachment and infection.

The Stem Bark of Kalopanax pictus Exhibits Anti-inflammatory Effect through Heme Oxygenase-1 Induction and NF-κB Suppression

Background

The stem bark of Kalopanax pictus (KP) has been used in traditional medicine to treat rheumatoidal arthritis, neurotic pain and diabetes mellitus in China and Korea. In this study, the mechanism responsible for anti-inflammatory effects of KP was investigated.

Methods

We examined the effects of KP on NO production, nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and HO-1 expression, NF-κB, Nrf2 and MAPK activation in mouse peritoneal macrophages.

Results

The aqueous extract of KP inhibited LPS-induced NO secretion as well as inducible iNOS expression, without affecting cell viability. KP suppressed LPS-induced NF-κB activation, phosphorylation and degradation of IκB-α, phosphorylation of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1/2 (ERK1/2) and c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK). Furthermore, KP induced HO-1 expression and Nrf2 nuclear translocation.

Conclusion

These results suggest that KP has the inhibitory effects on LPS-induced NO production in macrophages through NF-κB suppression and HO-1 induction.

Kalopanaxsaponin A induces apoptosis in human leukemia U937 cells through extracellular Ca2+ influx and caspase-8 dependent pathways

In the present study, we investigated the effect of KPS-A on the apoptotic activity and the molecular mechanism of the action in human leukemia. Treatment with KPS-A significantly increased apoptotic DNA fragmentation in human histiocytic lymphoma U937 cells as shown by DAPI staining, flow cytometry, and agarose gel electrophoresis. In addition, stimulation of U937 cell with KPS-A induced a series of intracellular events: (1) the activations of caspase-8, caspase-9, and caspase-3; (2) the translocations of Bid and Bax proteins to mitochondria; (3) the loss of mitochondrial membrane potential; and (4) the increased release of cytochrome c to the cytosol. Pretreatment with a specific caspases-8, -9 or -3 inhibitor, neutralized the pro-apoptotic activity of KPS-A in U937 cells. We further demonstrated that KPS-A markedly induced an increase in intracellular Ca2+ level, which was reversed by EGTA, a general calcium chelator, but not by TMB-8 and dantrolene, intracellular Ca2+ release blockers. Moreover, KPS-A-induced DNA fragmentation and caspase activation were substantially reduced in the presence of EGTA. Taken together, these results suggest that KPS-A may play therapeutic role for leukemia via the potent apoptotic activity through Ca2+/caspases-8/MPT/caspases-9/caspases-3 signaling pathway.

Antiviral activity obtained from aqueous extracts of the Chilean soapbark tree (Quillaja saponaria Molina)

Natural, aqueous extracts of Quillaja saponaria, the Chilean soapbark tree, contain several physiologically active triterpenoid saponins that display strong adjuvant activity when used in either human or animal vaccines. In this paper, we describe studies that demonstrate a novel antiviral activity of Quillaja extracts against six viruses: vaccinia virus, herpes simplex virus type 1, varicella zoster virus, human immunodeficiency viruses 1 and 2 (HIV-1, HIV-2) and reovirus. We demonstrate that microgram amounts of extract, while exhibiting no cell cytotoxicity or direct virucidal activity, prevent each of the six viruses tested from infecting their host cells. In addition, the presence of residual amounts of extract continue to block virus infection and render cells resistant to infection for at least 16 h after the removal of the extract from the cell culture medium. We demonstrate that a Quillaja extract possesses strong antiviral activity at concentrations more than 100-fold lower than concentrations that exhibit cell cytotoxicity. Extract concentrations as high as 100 microg ml(-1) are not cytotoxic, but concentrations as low as 0.1 microg ml(-1) are able to block HIV-1 and HIV-2 virus attachment and infection.

Effects of Leontice smirnowii tuber monodesmosides and crude extract in carrageenan- and histamine-induced acute inflammation model of rats

Leontice smirnowii is a member of the Berberidaceae family. We have recently reported the 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, reducing power and metal chelating activities of L. smirnowii products. In the current study we investigated the possible effects of the crude extracts of L. smirnowii (CELS) and the monodesmoside's purified extract (MPE) of L. smirnowii in the carrageenan- and histamine-induced acute inflammation models in rats. The experiment revealed that CELS and MPE have anti-inflammatory effects, dose dependently in carrageenan-induced acute inflammation. On the other hand, their proinflammatory effects were surprisingly observed, especially in low doses, in the histamine-induced acute inflammation model. Summarizing these data, we may state that CELS and MPE exert their anti-inflammatory effects via non-histaminergic pathways.

Screening of antiradical and antioxidant activity of monodesmosides and crude extract from Leontice smirnowii tuber

Leontice smirnowii is a member of the Berberidaceae family. In the current study we investigated the possible antiradical and antioxidant activity of the monodesmosides (MLS) and crude extract (CELS) of Leontice smirnowii using different antioxidant tests: 1,1-diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging, scavenging of superoxide anion radical-generated non-enzymatic system, ferric thiocyanate (FTC) method, reducing power, hydrogen peroxide scavenging and metal chelating activities. Experiment revealed that MLS and CELS have an antioxidant effect concentration-dependently. Total antioxidant activity was performed according to FTC method. At the 30mug/ml concentration, the inhibition effects of MLS and CELS on peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion were found to be 95.3% and 95.6%, respectively. On the other hand, percentage inhibition of butylated hydroxyanisole (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluene (BHT), alpha-tocopherol and trolox were found to be 98.2%, 98.5%, 84.0% and 87.9% inhibition of peroxidation of linoleic acid emulsion, respectively, at the same concentration. In addition, MLS and CELS had effective DPPH radical scavenging, superoxide anion radical scavenging, hydrogen peroxide scavenging, reducing power and metal chelating activities. Also, these various antioxidant activities were compared with BHA, BHT, alpha-tocopherol and trolox which were accepted as references antioxidants.

Anti-inflammatory and anti-nociceptive effects of the extract from Kalopanax pictus, Pueraria thunbergiana and Rhus verniciflua

The combined extracts obtained from three Chinese herb medicine, Kalopanax pictus, Pueraria thunbergiana and Rhus verniciflua, have been used as therapeutics for diabetes mellitus in Korea. In the present study, we have investigated their possible anti-inflammatory effects by comparing the potency of individual extracts with that of the combined extracts. An individual water extract prepared from Kalopanax pictus, Pueraria thunbergiana, and Rhus verniciflua was named K-1, P-1, and R-1, respectively. Simultaneously, we also prepared the combined extracts from above three plant materials by identical methods and named KPR-1. These four extracts were further fractionated into the EtOAc extracts, and these were designated as K-2, P-2, R-2, and KPR-2, respectively. These eight samples were subjected to the nitrite assays in LPS-induced macrophage 264.7 cells. KPR-2 exhibited the most pronounced effect on the inhibition of NO production among all the extracts. KPR-2 also significantly decreased PGE2, and TNF-alpha release. In addition, KPR-2 showed in vivo anti-inflammatory activity against acute paw edema induced by carrageenan in rats. When analgesic activity was measured by the acetic acid-induced abdominal constriction and hot plate test, KPR-2 showed a dose-dependent inhibition in animal models. These results suggested that the mixture extract and successive fractionation could lead to the better use of anti-inflammatory medicinal crude drugs.

Activity-guided isolation of saponins from Kalopanax pictus with anti-inflammatory activity

By bioassay-guided separation, a known saponin, kalopanaxsaponin A (1) and a new saponin, pictoside A (2) were isolated from the stem bark of Kalopanax pictus as anti-inflammatory components when evaluated by vascular permeability test. Another novel saponin, pictoside B (3) was also isolated but was inactive in the test system used. The structures of pictosides A and B were elucidated as caulophyllogenin 3-O-alpha-L-rhamnopyranosyl(1-->2)-alpha-L-arabinopyranoside (2) and pictogenin (3beta,6beta,16alpha,23-tetrahydroxyolean-12-ene-28-oic acid) 3-O-alpha-L-arabinopyranoside (3), respectively, by spectral analysis and by chemical degradation. Kalopanaxsaponin A and pictoside A showed significant anti-inflammatory activity at the oral doses of 50 mg/kg.

Anti-rheumatoid arthritis effect of the Kochia scoparia fruits and activity comparison of momordin lc, its prosapogenin and sapogenin

MeOH extract of Kochia scoparia was fractionated into CHCl3-, EtOAc- and BuOH extracts and the last fraction were hydrolyzed by 3%-NaOH (MeOH-H2O) to compare the bioactivities on antinociceptive and anti-inflammatory effects. Silica gel column chromatography of BuOH fraction afforded a large amount of 3-O-beta-D-xylopyranosyl (1-->3)-beta-D-glucuronopyranosyl oleanolic acid (momordin lc, 4) and that of acid hydrolysate of BuOH fraction gave 3-O-beta-D-glucuronopyranosyl oleanolic acid (momordin lb, 3), its 6'-O-methyl ester (2) and oleanolic acid (1). Silica gel column chromatography of alkaline hydrolysate afforded a large amount of 4. MeOH extract and both EtOAc- and BuOH fractions were active in the rheumatoidal rat induced Freund's complete adjuvant reagent (FCA) whereas CHCl3 fraction was inactive. Compound 1 and 4 showed significant activities in the same assay but oleanolic acid 3-O-glucuronopyranoside (3) showed no activity. These fashions were also observed in carrageenan-induced edema of the rat and in the antinociceptive activity tests undertaken in hot plate- and writhing methods. These results suggest that momordin lc and its aglycone, oleanolic acid, could be active principles for rheumatoid arthritis.