Cutaneous Manifestations of HIV Infection in Children

Surgical implications of HIV infection

According to the joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), 37.7 million adults and children worldwide were estimated to be living with HIV or acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) at the end of 2020 [UNAIDS. (2022). http://www.unaids.org . Accessed 30 May 2022]. Most reside in low- and middle-income countries, with approximately 67% in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). At the end of 2020, the total number of children less than 15 years of age living with HIV infection was 2.6 million, of whom 2.3 million (88%) were living in SSA. Aggressive interventions have reduced the annual number of incident (new) HIV infections among children to around 150,000 [UNAIDS. (2022). http://www.unaids.org . Accessed 30 May 2022]. However, paediatric HIV infection remains a pandemic affecting children predominantly in SSA but is also seen in Asia and sporadically elsewhere particularly in areas of civil strife such as is currently the case in Ukraine [War in Ukraine. (2022). https://www.unaids.org/en/War-Ukraine-special . Accessed Apr 2022]. New HIV infections among children declined by more than half (54%) from 2010 to 2020, due mainly to the increased provision of antiretroviral therapy to pregnant and breastfeeding women living with HIV [UNAIDS. (2022). http://www.unaids.org . Accessed 30 May 2022]. These programmes include early identification of HIV infection in pregnant or breastfeeding women through routine HIV testing, provision of antiretroviral therapy (ART) to all HIV-infected women who are pregnant or breastfeeding, provision of antiretroviral prophylaxis to their newborn infants during the first 6-12 weeks of life, delivery by elective Caesarean section when indicated, promotion of exclusive breastfeeding, early infancy screening for HIV infection, and initiation of ART in infants with HIV infection. HIV-infected children may require surgery either as an emergency to deal with a life-threatening incidental condition unrelated to HIV infection or for a complication of the disease such as tuberculosis or an aggressive soft tissue infection like necrotising fasciitis. Non-emergency surgical procedures may be required to assist in the diagnosis of an HIV-related condition or to correct a routine surgical problem electively. Surgical conditions associated with HIV infection are described under categories of soft tissue or organ-specific infections requiring drainage or debridement; gastrointestinal tract disease and complications; infections in the perineal area; malignancies and HIV-associated vasculitis. Although surgical outcomes are less favourable in HIV-infected children, pre-operative treatment of coinfections, administration of cotrimoxazole prophylaxis, nutritional support and antiretroviral therapy, together with peri-operative antibiotic prophylaxis have resulted in excellent short-term outcomes [World Health Organization. Consolidated guidelines on the use of antiretroviral drugs for treating and preventing HIV infection: Recommendations for a public health approach, June 201 http://www.apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/85321/1/9789241505727_eng.pdf?ua=1 ; World Health Organization Guideline on when to start antiretroviral therapy and on pre-exposure prophylaxis for HIV, September 2015. http://www.apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/10665/186275/1/9789241509565_eng.pdf?ua=1;Eley et al. in BMC Infect Dis 2:3, 2002;Karpelowsky et al. in Pediatr Surg Int 28:1007-1014, 2012;].

Pediatric HIV/AIDS and the skin: an update

In 2005 there were 2.1 million children under the age of 15 years living with HIV in sub-Saharan Africa. As in the adult pandemic, attendant skin disease is prevalent in children. This article provides an update of pediatric HIV/AIDS and its cutaneous manifestations from four main aspects: epidemiology, skin disease as an indicator of immune status, immune reconstitution inflammatory syndrome, and the impact of antiretroviral agents on skin disease.