Expression of AMPA/kainate receptors during development of chick embryo retina cells: in vitro versus in vivo studies

The developmental regulation of glutamate receptor-mediated calcium signaling in primary cultured rat hippocampal neurons

We have studied the developmental changes of glutamate-induced calcium (Ca²⁺) response in primary cultured hippocampal neurons at three different stages of cultures, 3, 7-8, and 14-16 days in vitro (DIV), using fura-2 single-cell digital micro-fluorimetry. We found that glutamate-induced Ca²⁺ signaling was altered during development, and that two different ionotropic glutamate receptors, α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazole propionate receptors (AMPARs) and N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs), were differently involved in the modulation of calcium response at different stages of neuronal culture. In the stages of culture at 3 and 8 DIV, glutamate-induced Ca²⁺ influx was mostly because of AMPAR activation and subsequent opening of voltage-dependent calcium channels, as Ca²⁺ response can be largely reduced by 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione (CNQX) and by nifedipine. In the advanced culture (14-17 DIV), glutamate-induced Ca²⁺ response was less sensitive to 6-cyano-7-nitroquinoxaline-2,3-dione and nifedipine. Furthermore, AMPA-induced Ca²⁺ response increased in a time-dependent manner during the cultures of 3-8 DIV and then reduced in the advanced culture of 14-17 DIV. NMDA-induced Ca²⁺ influx increased in a time-dependent manner, with a marked increase in the advanced culture (14-17 DIV). These results suggest that glutamate-induced Ca²⁺ signaling switched from AMPA-voltage-dependent calcium channel to NMDA-calcium signaling during development.

Calcium-permeable α-amino-3-hydroxy-5-methyl-4-isoxazolepropionic acid receptors trigger neuronal nitric-oxide synthase activation to promote nerve cell death in an Src kinase-dependent fashion

In the retina information decoding is dependent on excitatory neurotransmission and is critically modulated by AMPA glutamate receptors. The Src-tyrosine kinase has been implicated in modulating neurotransmission in CNS. Thus, our main goal was to correlate AMPA-mediated excitatory neurotransmission with the modulation of Src activity in retinal neurons. Cultured retinal cells were used to access the effects of AMPA stimulation on nitric oxide (NO) production and Src phosphorylation. 4-Amino-5-methylamino-2',7'-difluorofluorescein diacetate fluorescence mainly determined NO production, and immunocytochemistry and Western blotting evaluated Src activation. AMPA receptors activation rapidly up-regulated Src phosphorylation at tyrosine 416 (stimulatory site) and down-regulated phosphotyrosine 527 (inhibitory site) in retinal cells, an effect mainly mediated by calcium-permeable AMPA receptors. Interestingly, experiments confirmed that neuronal NOS was activated in response to calcium-permeable AMPA receptor stimulation. Moreover, data suggest NO pathway as a key regulatory signaling in AMPA-induced Src activation in neurons but not in glial cells. The NO donor SNAP (S-nitroso-N-acetyl-DL-penicillamine) and a soluble guanylyl cyclase agonist (YC-1) mimicked AMPA effect in Src Tyr-416 phosphorylation, reinforcing that Src activation is indeed modulated by the NO pathway. Gain and loss-of-function data demonstrated that ERK is a downstream target of AMPA-induced Src activation and NO signaling. Furthermore, AMPA stimulated NO production in organotypic retinal cultures and increased Src activity in the in vivo retina. Additionally, AMPA-induced apoptotic retinal cell death was regulated by both NOS and Src activity. Because Src activity is pivotal in several CNS regions, the data presented herein highlight that Src modulation is a critical step in excitatory retinal cell death.

Survival and death of mature avian motoneurons in organotypic slice culture: trophic requirements for survival and different types of degeneration

We have developed an organotypic culture technique that uses slices of chick embryo spinal cord, in which trophic requirements for long-term survival of mature motoneurons (MNs) were studied. Slices were obtained from E16 chick embryos and maintained for up to 28 days in vitro (DIV) in a basal medium. Under these conditions, most MNs died. To promote MN survival, 14 different trophic factors were assayed. Among these 14, glial cell line-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF) and vascular endothelial growth factor were the most effective. GDNF was able to promote MN survival for at least 28 DIV. K(+) depolarization or caspase inhibition prevented MN death but also induced degenerative-like changes in rescued MNs. Agents that elevate cAMP levels promoted the survival of a proportion of MNs for at least 7 DIV. Examination of dying MNs revealed that, in addition to cells exhibiting a caspase-3-dependent apoptotic pattern, some MNs died by a caspase-3-independent mechanism and displayed autophagic vacuoles, an extremely convoluted nucleus, and a close association with microglia. This organotypic spinal cord slice culture may provide a convenient model for testing conditions that promote survival of mature-like MNs that are affected in late-onset MN disease such as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.

Interactions of allosteric modulators of AMPA/kainate receptors on spreading depression in the chicken retina

The functional role of AMPA and kainate receptors in spreading depression (SD) was investigated in the isolated chicken retina. Competitive (NBQX) and non-competitive (GYKI 52466, GYKI 53405 and GYKI 53655) antagonists of the AMPA receptor inhibited AMPA-induced SD in a concentration-dependent manner. Concentrations of drugs caused 50% inhibition (IC(50) values) are 0.2, 16.6, 7.0 and 1.4 microM, respectively. AMPA receptor positive modulator cyclothiazide was more effective in the potentiation of SD evoked by AMPA than by kainate. Slight potentiation of either AMPA- or kainate-induced SD was observed only at high concentration (1 mg/ml) by the kainate receptor modulator concanavalin A. Compounds that positively modulate AMPA receptor function (cyclothiazide, IDRA-21, S 18986, 1-BCP and aniracetam) caused a concentration-dependent potentiation in SD. Concentrations of drugs that caused 50% potentiation (estimated EC(50) values) are 9, 135, 142, 450 and 1383 microM, respectively. Interaction between cyclothiazide, aniracetam or S 18986 administered with each other, or with GYKI 52466, respectively, was also investigated. When cyclothiazide and S 18986 were co-applied, their effects seemed to be additive. However, lack of additivity was obtained when S 18986 was added together with aniracetam. Positive modulators applied at equiactive concentrations reduced the inhibitory action of GYKI 52466 and differently shifted its concentration-response curve. In this respect, S 18986 was the most effective (IC(50) of GYKI 52466 changed from 16.6 to 51.9 microM). Our findings indicate the contribution of AMPA rather than kainate receptors in the mediation of retinal spreading depression. Our data further support the idea that multiple positive modulatory sites are present on the AMPA receptor complex in addition to a negative modulatory site.