1
|
Hart KA, Kimura S. Pharmacologic Interventions to Immunologic and Immune-Mediated Conditions in Horses. Vet Clin North Am Equine Pract 2024; 40:307-339. [PMID: 38852015 DOI: 10.1016/j.cveq.2024.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/10/2024] Open
Abstract
Immunomodulators can stimulate, suppress, or regulate one or many aspects of the immune response. Use of a variety of immunostimulants, immunosuppressors, and anti-inflammatory drugs are described in horses, but the evidence supporting their efficacy is variable. Corticosteroids and nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs are the best characterized immunomodulators in horses, but further study is needed to fully define their ideal dosing protocols and indications and to characterize the efficacy of other immunomodulators in equine medicine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kelsey A Hart
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 2200 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
| | - Shune Kimura
- Department of Large Animal Medicine, University of Georgia College of Veterinary Medicine, 2200 College Station Road, Athens, GA 30602, USA
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Carnet F, Paillot R, Fortier C, Hue ES, Briot L, de Geoffroy F, Vidalain PO, Pronost S. Immunostimulating Effect of Inactivated Parapoxvirus Ovis on the Serological Response to Equine Influenza Booster Vaccination. Vaccines (Basel) 2022; 10:vaccines10122139. [PMID: 36560549 PMCID: PMC9782193 DOI: 10.3390/vaccines10122139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2022] [Revised: 12/09/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Equine influenza virus (EIV) is responsible for recurring outbreaks that are detrimental to the equine industry. Vaccination is key for prevention, but the effectiveness and duration of protection provided by existing vaccines is often insufficient. In order to improve vaccine efficacy, we evaluated the benefit of immune stimulation with inactivated Parapoxvirus ovis (iPPVO) on the antibody response induced by a vaccine boost against EIV. A whole inactivated ISCOMatrix-adjuvanted equine influenza vaccine was administered alone (n = 10) or combined with iPPVO injections at D0, D2 and D4 post vaccination (n = 10) to adult horses that required a vaccine boost 6 months after the last immunization, as now recommended by the WOAH. Antibody levels were measured with the single radial haemolysis (SRH) assay at 1, 3 and 6 months post-vaccination. Results revealed that horses that received iPPVO had higher antibody levels than the control group injected with the EI vaccine alone. Although the vaccine used contains only a clade 1 and European lineage strain, the increase in protective antibodies was also observed against a clade 2 strain. Thus, immune stimulation with iPPVO, a substance already marketed as an immunostimulant, could be used to improve vaccination protocols in horses and potentially other species.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Flora Carnet
- LABÉO, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
- BIOTARGEN, Normandie University, UNICAEN, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
| | - Romain Paillot
- LABÉO, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
- BIOTARGEN, Normandie University, UNICAEN, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
- School of Equine and Veterinary Physiotherapy, Writtle University College, Lordship Road, Writtle, Chelmsford CM1 3RR, UK
| | - Christine Fortier
- LABÉO, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
- BIOTARGEN, Normandie University, UNICAEN, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
| | - Erika S. Hue
- LABÉO, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
- BIOTARGEN, Normandie University, UNICAEN, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
| | - Laurie Briot
- Institut Français du Cheval et de l’Equitation, Plateau Technique du Pin-au-Haras, 61310 Gouffern en Auge, France
| | - Frédéric de Geoffroy
- Institut Français du Cheval et de l’Equitation, Plateau Technique du Pin-au-Haras, 61310 Gouffern en Auge, France
| | - Pierre-Olivier Vidalain
- CIRI Centre International de Recherche en Infectiologie, Univ. Lyon, Inserm, U1111, Université Claude Bernard Lyon 1, CNRS, UMR5308, ENS de Lyon, 69007 Lyon, France
| | - Stéphane Pronost
- LABÉO, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
- BIOTARGEN, Normandie University, UNICAEN, 14280 Saint-Contest, France
- Correspondence:
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Herrera MF, Otermin M, Herrera JM, Simoy MV, Bianchi CP, Aguilar JJ, Fumuso EA. Effect of Mycobacterium cell wall fraction on endometrial histomorphometry of mares resistant and susceptible to persistent breeding-induced endometritis. Theriogenology 2020; 156:2-10. [PMID: 32652325 DOI: 10.1016/j.theriogenology.2020.06.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2020] [Revised: 06/21/2020] [Accepted: 06/27/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Mycobacterium cell wall fraction (MCWF) is a biological component made up of molecules with immunostimulant properties, which is therapeutically used to modulate persistent breeding-induced endometritis (PBIE). The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of this immunomodulator on the endometrial histological structure during the diestrus of PBIE-resistant and -susceptible mares that either received treatment with MCWF or not. The experiment was conducted with 10 resistant mares (RM) and 9 susceptible mares (SM). In the first estrous cycle of the trial, all mares were inseminated with dead semen as an inflammatory stimulus (Group A); at the next cycle, all mares were inseminated with dead semen and treated with a MCWF commercial immunomodulator (Group B). In both groups, endometrial biopsies were taken on day 7 post-ovulation (diestrus). Endometrial biopsies of untreated-RM (UTRM, n = 6), untreated-SM (UTSM, n = 7) MCWF-treated-RM (TRM, n = 6) and MCWF-treated-SM (TSM, n = 6) were evaluated. They were randomly chosen as representative mares of Group A and B, respectively. The height of lining and glandular epithelia, glandular diameter, glandular density and glandular area were evaluated. The histological structure revealed lymphocytic infiltration and dilated, tortuous glands with some glandular nests, particularly in UTSM. The histomorphometrical results showed no differences (ρ > 0.05) between the analyzed groups. This would indicate that post-service treatment with the MCWF immunomodulator does not modify the endometrial histoarchitecture but, apparently, its action would be mainly based on the stimulation of the cellular and humoral immune responses.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marcela F Herrera
- Laboratorio de Histología y Embriología, Área de Ciencias Morfológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Pje. Arroyo Seco S/N, CP B7000, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Martina Otermin
- Instituto Superior de Formación Docente Nº10, Belgrano 1610, CP B7000, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Juan Manuel Herrera
- Laboratorio de Histología y Embriología, Área de Ciencias Morfológicas, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Pje. Arroyo Seco S/N, CP B7000, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - M Verónica Simoy
- Instituto Multidisciplinario sobre Ecosistemas y Desarrollo Sustentable, Facultad de Ciencias Exactas, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas (CONICET), Pje. Arroyo Seco S/N, CP B7000, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - Carolina P Bianchi
- Laboratorio de Endocrinología, Centro de Investigación Veterinaria Tandil (CIVETAN), CONICET, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Pje. Arroyo Seco S/N, CP B7000, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| | - J Javier Aguilar
- Producción Equina, Facultad de Agronomía y Veterinaria, Universidad Nacional de Río Cuarto, Ruta 36 Km 601, CP 5800, Río Cuarto, Córdoba, Argentina.
| | - Elida A Fumuso
- Laboratorio de Clínica y Reproducción Equina, Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional del Centro de la Provincia de Buenos Aires, Pje. Arroyo Seco S/N, CP B7000, Tandil, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Orally Administered Pediococcus acidilactici and Saccharomyces boulardii–Based Probiotics Alter Select Equine Immune Function Parameters. J Equine Vet Sci 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jevs.2014.06.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
|
5
|
Paillot R. A systematic review of the immune-modulators Parapoxvirus ovis and Propionibacterium acnes for the prevention of respiratory disease and other infections in the horse. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2013; 153:1-9. [PMID: 23481655 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2013.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 01/24/2013] [Accepted: 01/25/2013] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Inactivated Parapoxvirus ovis (iPPVO) and Propionibacterium acnes (P. acnes) are currently used in equine medicine as immune-modulators for prophylactic treatment or adjunct to conventional therapy in order to improve immune defences, to prevent or treat infectious diseases. Their mode of action relies on a non-antigen specific interaction with the innate and/or adaptive immune responses. iPPVO stimulates and regulates cytokine secretion by leucocytes, while P. acnes acts primarily through the activation of macrophages. This report aims to describe their activity as immune-modulators and to summarise the scientific literature and reports available about their use in horses, particularly in the prevention or treatment of equine respiratory diseases. This systematic review regroups articles published in peer-review journals, clinical trials reports, conference proceedings and other information made available in the last 2 decades.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Paillot
- Animal Health Trust, Centre for Preventive Medicine, Lanwades Park, Newmarket, Suffolk CB8 7UU, UK.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Bruhn O, Grötzinger J, Cascorbi I, Jung S. Antimicrobial peptides and proteins of the horse--insights into a well-armed organism. Vet Res 2011; 42:98. [PMID: 21888650 PMCID: PMC3179947 DOI: 10.1186/1297-9716-42-98] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2011] [Accepted: 09/02/2011] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Antimicrobial peptides play a pivotal role as key effectors of the innate immune system in plants and animals and act as endogenous antibiotics. The molecules exhibit an antimicrobial activity against bacteria, viruses, and eukaryotic pathogens with different specificities and potencies depending on the structure and amino-acid composition of the peptides. Several antimicrobial peptides were comprehensively investigated in the last three decades and some molecules with remarkable antimicrobial properties have reached the third phase of clinical studies. Next to the peptides themselves, numerous organisms were examined and analyzed regarding their repertoire of antimicrobial peptides revealing a huge number of candidates with potencies and properties for future medical applications. One of these organisms is the horse, which possesses numerous peptides that are interesting candidates for therapeutical applications in veterinary medicine. Here we summarize investigations and knowledge on equine antimicrobial peptides, point to interesting candidates, and discuss prospects for therapeutical applications.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Oliver Bruhn
- Institute for Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Hospitalstraße 4, University Hospital Schleswig-Holstein, Campus Kiel, 24105 Kiel, Germany.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
7
|
Christen-Clottu O, Klocke P, Burger D, Straub R, Gerber V. Treatment of clinically diagnosed equine sarcoid with a mistletoe extract (Viscum album austriacus). J Vet Intern Med 2010; 24:1483-9. [PMID: 21039860 DOI: 10.1111/j.1939-1676.2010.0597.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Equine sarcoids (ES) are common, difficult to treat, and have high recurrence rates. Viscum album extracts (VAE) are used in human cancer treatment. HYPOTHESIS That therapy with VAE (Iscador P) is effective in the treatment of ES. ANIMALS Fifty-three horses (444 ES); 42 were treated with VAE or placebo as monotherapy; 11 were treated with VAE or placebo after selective excision of ES. METHODS Prospective, randomised, blinded, clinical trial. Horses were randomly assigned to treatment (VAE; n=32) or control group (Placebo; n=21). One milliliter of VAE (Iscador P) in increasing concentrations from 0.1 to 20 mg/mL or physiological NaCl solution was given SC 3 times a week over 105 days. Number, localization, and type of the ES were documented over 12 months. A subset of 163 clinically diagnosed equine sarcoid (CDES) lesions (95 VAE, 68 Placebo) was evaluated in detail, considering clinical findings and tumor volume. RESULTS No undesired adverse effects were observed except for mild edema at the injection site in 5 of 32 horses (16%). Complete or partial regression was observed in 13 horses of the VAE group (41%) and in 3 of the control horses (14%; P<.05). After VAE treatment, 48 of 95 CDES (67%) showed an improvement compared with 17 of 68 CDES in the control group (40%; P<.01). Twenty-seven CDES had disappeared completely in the VAE group (38%) compared with 9 CDES in the control group (13% NS). CONCLUSIONS AND CLINICAL IMPORTANCE VAE (Iscador P) represents a safe and effective treatment for CDES.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- O Christen-Clottu
- Research Institute of Organic Agriculture (FiBL), Frick, Switzerland.
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
8
|
Effects of two commercially available immunostimulants on leukocyte function of foals following ex vivo exposure to Rhodococcus equi. Vet Immunol Immunopathol 2010; 138:198-205. [PMID: 20822815 DOI: 10.1016/j.vetimm.2010.07.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2010] [Revised: 07/27/2010] [Accepted: 07/28/2010] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this study was to determine the effect of immunostimulants on neutrophil, macrophage, and lymphocyte function following ex vivo exposure to Rhodococcus equi. Eighteen foals were randomly assigned to one of 3 treatment groups. Treatment consisted of inactivated Propionibacterium acnes (PA), inactivated parapoxvirus ovis (PPVO), or saline (control) administered on days 0 (7 days of age), 2, and 8. Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid and blood were collected on days 0 (baseline), 12, 24 and 36. Intracellular replication of R. equi in macrophages, cytokine induction by R. equi-infected macrophages, phagocytic and oxidative burst activity of neutrophils, lymphoproliferative responses, and cytokine induction of proliferating lymphocytes were measured. Neutrophils from foals treated with PPVO had significantly greater ability to phagocytize R. equi and undergo oxidative burst on day 12 and day 24 compared to baseline values. On day 24, foals treated with PPVO had significantly greater phagocytosis and oxidative burst than foals treated with PA. Treatment with PA resulted in significantly less intracellular proliferation of R. equi within monocyte-derived macrophages on day 12 compared to control foals. The ability of R. equi to replicate in BAL macrophages decreased significantly (P=0.005) with time with lower replication in BAL macrophages of older foals compared to younger foals, regardless of treatment. On day 12, TNF-α induction in monocyte-derived macrophages and IL-12 p40 induction in BAL macrophages infected with R. equi was significantly higher in foals treated with PPVO than in controls. Lymphoproliferative responses and IFN-γ induction were not significantly different between groups.
Collapse
|
9
|
Nasir L, Campo MS. Bovine papillomaviruses: their role in the aetiology of cutaneous tumours of bovids and equids. Vet Dermatol 2008; 19:243-54. [PMID: 18927950 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-3164.2008.00683.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 136] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Bovine papillomavirus (BPV) is perhaps the most extensively studied animal papillomavirus. In cattle BPVs induce benign tumours of cutaneous or mucosal epithelia, called papillomas or warts. Cattle papillomas are benign tumours and generally regress without eliciting any serious clinical problems in the host, but occasionally persist and provide the focus for malignant transformation to squamous cell carcinoma, as in the case of cancer of the urinary bladder and cancer of the upper alimentary canal. BPV is the only papillomavirus that jumps species: the virus also infects equids, and gives rise to fibroblastic tumours called sarcoids. Sarcoids very rarely regress, more often they persist and can be locally aggressive. These tumours are the most common dermatological tumour of equids worldwide. The purpose of this review is to discuss the biology of BPV, the biology of bovine tumours and equine sarcoids, and present the current understanding of BPV in tumour pathogenesis in its natural host, cattle, and in its heterologous host, equids. Finally, the use of anti-BPV vaccines as a therapy for equine sarcoids will be discussed. Only limited information on the clinical or pathological aspects of either bovine or equine tumours will be provided as this subject has been extensively addressed previously.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Lubna Nasir
- Division of Pathological Sciences, Institute of Comparative Medicine, University of Glasgow, Garscube Estate, Glasgow G61 1QH.
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Koo H, Ryu SH, Ahn HJ, Jung WK, Park YK, Kwon NH, Kim SH, Kim JM, Yoo BW, Choi SI, Davis WC, Park YH. Immunostimulatory effects of the anionic alkali mineral complex Barodon on equine lymphocytes. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2006; 13:1255-66. [PMID: 16943344 PMCID: PMC1656555 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00150-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2006] [Revised: 06/14/2006] [Accepted: 08/23/2006] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that the anionic alkali mineral complex BARODON has an immunoenhancing effect on pigs as an adjuvant and as a nonspecific immunostimulant. Likewise, the equine immune system has been defined with various monoclonal antibodies specific to equine leukocyte differentiation antigens to determine the possibility of enhancing equine resistance to respiratory diseases and promoting other immunostimulatory effects with the application of BARODON. Compared with the control group, after 3 weeks of treatment, BARODON-treated groups showed higher proportions of cells (P < 0.05) expressing major histocompatibility complex class II and CD2, CD4(+), CD4(+) CD25(+), CD8(+), and CD8(+) CD25(+) T lymphocytes, dendritic cells, and surface immunoglobulin M(+) B lymphocytes in peripheral blood, as well as enhanced cell proliferative responses with phytohemagglutinin and increased phagocytic activity against Streptococcus equi and Staphylococcus aureus strains with high antibiotic resistance, the bacteria frequently identified as etiologic agents of equine respiratory diseases at the Seoul Race Park in Seoul, Korea. This study shows that BARODON may act as an immunostimulator and can be an effective alternative to antimicrobial feed additives for nonspecific improvements in equine immune responses, particularly against respiratory diseases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Hyecheong Koo
- KRF Zoonotic Disease Priority Research Institute, College of Veterinary Medicine, Seoul National University, Sillim-dong, Gwanak-gu, Seoul, Republic of Korea
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
11
|
Witonsky S, Gogal RM, Buechner-Maxwell V, Ahmed SA. Immunologic analysis of blood samples obtained from horses and stored for twenty-four hours. Am J Vet Res 2003; 64:1003-9. [PMID: 12926593 DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.2003.64.1003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE To determine whether immune function can be accurately assessed in blood samples obtained from horses and refrigerated overnight and whether a nonradioactive lymphocyte proliferation assay can be used to evaluate samples obtained from horses. SAMPLE POPULATION 224 blood samples from 28 clinically normal adult horses. PROCEDURE Heparinized blood samples were collected. Each sample was divided into 2 equal aliquots. One aliquot was refrigerated overnight to simulate overnight shipping of blood samples, and the other aliquot was evaluated on the day of blood collection. Lymphocytes were isolated and enumerated by use of a modified single-gradient procedure. Cell viability and function were assessed by use of cytologic examination, flow cytometry, and mitogen-induced proliferation assays. Lymphocyte proliferation in response to T- and B-cell mitogens was measured by use of [3H]-thymidine incorporation and a nonradioactive lymphocyte proliferation assay. RESULTS Lymphocytes refrigerated for up to 24 hours continued to be acceptable for use in immunologic analysis on the basis that they maintained viability and did not have significant alterations in lymphocyte subsets, except for CD8, when compared with freshly isolated lymphocytes. Furthermore, results for mitogen-induced lymphocyte proliferation assays were also comparable between fresh and refrigerated aliquots. CONDUSIONS AND CLINICAL RELEVANCE: The nonradioactive lymphocyte proliferation assay is a reliable alternative to [3H]-thymidine assay for assessing proliferation of equine lymphocytes. Collectively, our results imply that blood samples refrigerated and shipped ovenight to a laboratory can be used to perform cellular-immune assays; results of those assays would enhance a clinician's diagnostic abilities to monitor the efficacy of treatment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sharon Witonsky
- Department of Large Animal Clinical Sciences, the Center for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University, Blacksburg, VA 24061-0442, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
12
|
Blecha F. Immunomodulators for prevention and treatment of infectious diseases in food-producing animals. Vet Clin North Am Food Anim Pract 2001; 17:621-33, viii. [PMID: 11692512 DOI: 10.1016/s0749-0720(15)30010-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The goal of immunomodulation in food-producing animals is to regulate immunity for the benefit of the animal and production efficiency. Immunomodulators are substances that exert this control and include cytokines, pharmaceuticals, microbial products, nutraceuticals, and traditional medicinal plants. Although treatment and prevention of infectious diseases are the most common reasons to use immunomodulators, other conditions, such as amelioration of stress-induced immunosuppression, maturation of the neonate's developing immune response, and strategies to reduce the metabolic cost of eliciting an immune response also are well suited for immunomodulation. Continued discovery of new immune regulators and increased understanding of immunity in food-producing animals will ensure new opportunities for the use of immunomodulators in food-producing animals.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- F Blecha
- Department of Anatomy and Physiology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Kansas State University, Manhattan, Kansas, USA.
| |
Collapse
|