Arthroscopic treatment of soft-tissue impingement of the ankle in athletes

Arthroscopic treatment for anterolateral impingement of the ankle: Systematic review and exploration of evidence about role of ankle instability

BACKGROUND

Arthroscopic debridement is a common surgical treatment for patients with anterolateral impingement (ALI) of the ankle. Although they often have a history of ankle sprain, information regarding the role of ankle instability in ALI is limited. The aims of this review were to: 1) assess the clinical outcomes of arthroscopic surgical treatment for ALI of the ankle; and 2) review the data regarding anterior talofibular ligament (ATFL) injury and lateral ankle instability in patients who underwent arthroscopic surgery for ALI.

METHOD

A literature search of Pubmed and EMBASE was performed. Studies that met the following inclusion criteria were reviewed: (1) human clinical studies investigating patients who underwent arthroscopic surgery for ALI; (2) results with at least one scoring system with minimum follow-up of six months. The quality of each study was evaluated using the Oxford CEBM tool to assess the level of evidence and the grade of recommendation. The data of patient characteristics, intraoperative findings and clinical outcomes were extracted.

RESULTS

Eight articles were included in this systematic review, all of which were graded level 4 with grade C recommendation. In total, 203 patients with a mean age of 32 years (ranging from 11 to 74) were analysed. AOFAS score was used in 6 studies and scored 90.1 on average at follow-up. Two other studies used original scores. One study reported arthroscopic findings of the ATFL and another study reported on residual instability after surgery. New ankle sprains during follow-up period were reported in 8.3 to 20.0% of patients in 4 studies.

DISCUSSION

This review showed good clinical results of arthroscopic debridement with a grade C recommendation. Reports regarding arthroscopic observation of the ATFL and residual instability after surgery were lacking. Further investigation of what we are still calling "ALI" should be made with higher level of evidence focusing more on ATFL injury and its effect on clinical outcomes.

The Effectiveness of Osteochondral Autograft Transfer in the Management of Osteochondral Lesions of the Talus: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis

Osteochondral lesions of the talus (OLT) are common following ankle trauma. Operative treatment is often required, with osteochondral autografting frequently performed for large or cystic lesions, or following failed primary surgery. The aim of this systematic review was to evaluate the current evidence for osteochondral autograft transfer system (OATS) in the management of OLT. A systematic search of the PubMed, EMBASE, Scopus, and Cochrane Library databases was performed based on the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews (PRISMA) guidelines. Study quality was assessed using the modified Coleman Methodology Score (CMS). Meta-analysis was carried out using RevMan, version 5.4 (The Cochrane Collaboration, 2020). A total of 23 studies were included. The mean modified CMS was 48.1±7.47. Fourteen studies reported preoperative and postoperative Visual Analog Scale (VAS) and American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Score (AOFAS). The aggregate mean preoperative and postoperative VAS score across 14 studies was 6.47±1.35 and 1.98±1.18, respectively. Meta-analysis of seven studies on 210 patients found that OATS resulted in a significant reduction in VAS score compared to baseline (Mean Difference {MD} -4.22, 95% Confidence Interval {CI} -4.54 to -3.90, P < 0.0001). The aggregate mean preoperative and postoperative AOFAS scores across 14 studies were 56.41±8.52 and 87.14±4.8, respectively. Based on eight studies on 224 patients, OATS resulted in a significant improvement in AOFAS score compared to baseline (MD 29.70, 95% CI 25.68 to 33.73, P = < 0.0001). Donor site pain occurred in 9% of cases. Current evidence from low-quality studies suggests that OATS is a safe and effective treatment option for OLT, though it is associated with a risk of donor site morbidity.

Pediatric Bassett's ligament: pathology or normal anatomy?

BACKGROUND

Bassett's ligament is an accessory fascicle of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament. The prevalence, normal thickness and clinical implications of a thickened ligament have not been described in the pediatric radiology literature.

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to determine the prevalence and thickness of Bassett's ligament in pediatric patients with magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) findings of lateral talar osteochondral lesions, medial talar osteochondral lesions and posterior ankle impingement, to compare these measurements with normal MRIs, and to compare the reproducibility of these measurements.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

This is a retrospective study of pediatric ankle MRIs with four cohorts containing 21 patients each. All MRIs were retrospectively reviewed by a pediatric musculoskeletal radiologist and a pediatric radiology fellow. The prevalence of Bassett's ligament and its axial thickness were obtained for each cohort with repeat measurements for intra-observer and interobserver variability. Average thickness and standard deviation of Bassett's ligament were calculated.

RESULTS

The prevalence of Bassett's ligament and its thickness in each cohort were (mean±standard deviation): lateral osteochondral lesions, 71% (15/21), 1.9±0.5 mm; medial osteochondral lesions, 52% (11/21), 1.4±0.2 mm; posterior impingement, 52% (11/21), 1.3±0.2 mm; and normal ankle examinations, 71% (15/21), 1.5±0.4 mm. The thickness of Bassett's ligament was increased in the lateral talar osteochondral lesion group when compared to normal (P=0.02), while thickness in the medial osteochondral lesion and posterior impingement groups was not significant when compared to normal. The repeat measurements showed no significant difference in intra-observer and interobserver variability.

CONCLUSION

Bassett's ligament is a normal structure in children. Thickening of Bassett's ligament is seen with lateral osteochondral lesions and may be an indirect sign of anterolateral tibiotalar capsule injury.

Current concepts review: Arthroscopic treatment of anterior ankle impingement

Anterior ankle impingement is a common cause of chronic ankle pain, particularly in athletic populations. Morris and McMurray provided the earliest descriptions of anterior impingement, coining the condition as "athlete's ankle" or "footballer's ankle". The pathology has since been a topic of considerable investigation and has been re-termed "anterior ankle impingement syndrome". Treatment with open surgery has provided good results historically, but at the price of significant complications. Advancements in ankle arthroscopy have decreased the risk of complication drastically and evidence in the literature indicates that anterior arthroscopy is an effective approach to treating osseous and soft tissue impingement. Effective clinical diagnosis and diagnostic imaging are critical for pre-surgical planning. Preoperative detection of anterior osteophytes has been correlated with outcomes. Factors such as joint space narrowing and large osteophytes may also influence outcomes. Therefore, a comprehensive understanding of diagnosis and surgical technique can influence patient outcomes, and patient expectations can be managed around prognostic indicators such as the presence of osteoarthritis. The purpose of this review is to discuss the etiology, clinical presentation, diagnosis, surgical technique, and postoperative rehabilitation of anteromedial and anterolateral anterior ankle impingement syndrome and to evaluate the evidence-based outcomes of arthroscopic management.

Efficacy of Foot and Ankle Corticosteroid Injections

BACKGROUND

Corticosteroid injections have been used for a variety of foot and ankle pathologies over the years, and our aim was to evaluate the efficacy and safety of them in our clinic.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

We performed a retrospective review of notes and a telephone questionnaire on the clinical outcome of all patients who underwent a corticosteroid injection of the foot or ankle in a year. All procedures were performed in an outpatient setting by a consultant musculoskeletal radiologist using either ultrasound or X-ray guidance and had a minimum of 2 years of follow-up.

RESULTS

Overall, 314 of 365 (86%) patients reported a significant improvement in symptoms, and 242 (66%) reported complete resolution of their pain, with 107 (29%) remaining asymptomatic at the 2-year follow-up. The mode time of recurrence of pain was 3 months. Fifty-one (14%) underwent a further injection and 88 (24%) underwent operative intervention within the follow-up period. Complication rates in our series were low. There were no reported infections. Complications occurred in 5 patients (1.3%), including steroid flare, pain, and plantar plate ruptures.

CONCLUSION

Corticosteroid injections were a safe and effective option for treating a variety of foot and ankle conditions and reduced the need for surgery. They were particularly effective for the treatment of ankle soft tissue impingement. They appear ineffective in providing significant improvement in pain for longer than 3 months in conditions such as plantar fasciitis and hallux rigidus.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV, case series.

Ankle impingement

Ankle impingement is a syndrome that encompasses a wide range of anterior and posterior joint pathology involving both osseous and soft tissue abnormalities. In this review, the etiology, pathoanatomy, diagnostic workup, and treatment options for both anterior and posterior ankle impingement syndromes are discussed.

Football injuries of the ankle: A review of injury mechanisms, diagnosis and management

Football is the most popular sport worldwide and is associated with a high injury rate, most of which are the result of trauma from player contact. Ankle injuries are among the most commonly diagnosed injuries in the game. The result is reduced physical activity and endurance levels, lost game time, and considerable medical cost. Sports medicine professionals must employ the correct diagnostic tools and effective treatments and rehabilitation protocols to minimize the impact of these injuries on the player. This review examines the diagnosis, treatment, and postoperative rehabilitation for common football injuries of the ankle based on the clinical evidence provided in the current literature.

Arthroscopic Treatment and Prognostic Classification of Anterior Soft Tissue Impingement of the Ankle

BACKGROUND

Anterior soft tissue impingement of the ankle has been described based on the etiology and location, but no classification has been reported. Arthroscopic treatment is usually considered effective, even if the behavior of the different forms of impingement is not clear. The purpose of this study was to analyze the factors affecting long-term results.

METHODS

Forty-two patients with a mean age of 32.6 years were arthroscopically treated between 2004 and 2008. Impingement lesions were identified according to clinical examination and confirmed by MRI. Soft tissue impingement was detected and classified according to location (anteromedial, anterolateral, syndesmotic or diffuse). Patient data, foot morphology, and previous trauma or surgery were recorded. Patients were evaluated after a mean of 90.1 months' follow-up with the American Orthopaedic Foot & Ankle Society (AOFAS) scoring system.

RESULTS

The mean AOFAS score improved from 40.6 preoperatively to 82.6, 78.4, and 74.8, respectively, at the 2-, 4-, and 6-year follow-ups (P < .05). The anterolateral form showed higher scores compared to the diffuse or anteromedial forms. Age, foot morphology, and previous trauma or surgery did not affect the results. Body mass index of more than 26 and male gender were associated with worse outcomes.

CONCLUSION

Arthroscopic debridement proved effective in the treatment of soft tissue impingement. Furthermore, we were able to classify the location of the anterior soft tissue impingement of the ankle, which may have prognostic importance.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, case series.

Arthroscopic Treatment for Anterior Ankle Impingement: A Systematic Review of the Current Literature

PURPOSE

To provide a comprehensive overview of the clinical outcomes of arthroscopic procedures used as a treatment strategy for anterior ankle impingement.

METHODS

A systematic literature search of the Medline, Embase (Classic), and CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) databases was performed. Studies that met the following inclusion criteria were reviewed: studies reporting outcomes of arthroscopic treatment for anterior ankle impingement; studies reporting on more than 20 patients; a study population with a minimum age of 18 years; and studies in the English, Dutch, German, Italian, or Spanish language. Two reviewers independently performed data extraction. Extracted data consisted of population characteristics, in addition to both primary and secondary outcome measures. The Downs and Black scale was used to assess the methodologic quality of randomized and nonrandomized studies included in this review.

RESULTS

Twenty articles were included in this systematic review. Overall, good results were found for arthroscopic treatment in patients with anterior ankle impingement. In the studies that reported patient satisfaction rates, high percentages of good to excellent satisfaction were described (74% to 100%). The percentages of patients who would undergo the same procedure again under the same circumstances were also high (94.3% to 97.5%). Complication rates were low (4.6%), particularly with respect to major complications (1.1%). The high heterogeneity of the included studies made it impossible to compare the results of the studies, including between anterolateral impingement and anteromedial impingement.

CONCLUSIONS

Arthroscopic treatment for anterior ankle impingement appears to provide good outcomes with respect to patient satisfaction and low complication rates. However, on the basis of the findings of this study, no conclusion can be made in terms of the effect of the type of impingement or additional pathology on clinical outcome.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, systematic review of Level II and IV studies.

Cohesive taping and short-leg casting in acute low-type ankle sprains in physically active patients

BACKGROUND

Cohesive taping is commonly used for the prevention or treatment of ankle sprain injuries. Short-leg cast immobilization or splinting is another treatment option in such cases. To determine the clinical efficacy and antiedema effects of cohesive taping and short-leg cast immobilization in acute low-type ankle sprains of physically active patients, we performed a preliminary clinical study to assess objective evidence for edema and functional patient American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) scores with these alternative treatments.

METHODS

Fifty-nine physically active patients were included: 32 in the taping group and 27 in the short-leg cast group within a year. If a sprain was moderate (grade II) or mild (grade I), we used functional taping or short-leg cast immobilization for 10 days. We evaluated the edema and the functional scores of the injured ankle using the AOFAS Clinical Rating System on days 1, 10, and 100.

RESULTS

In each group, edema significantly decreased and AOFAS scores increased indicating that both treatment methods were effective. With the numbers available, no statistically significant difference could be detected.

CONCLUSIONS

Each treatment method was effective in decreasing the edema and increasing the functional scores of the ankle. At the beginning of treatment, not only the level of edema but also the initial functional scores of the ankle and examinations are important in making decisions regarding the optimal treatment option.

Safety of ankle arthroscopy for the treatment of anterolateral soft-tissue impingement

PURPOSE

To quantify the overall incidence of complications related to arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral soft-tissue ankle impingement.

METHODS

Electronic databases and relevant peer-reviewed sources, including OvidSP/Medline (http://ovidsp.tx.ovid.com) and Google Scholar, were systematically searched for the terms "anterolateral" AND "ankle" AND "impingement" OR "soft-tissue impingement" AND "arthroscopy." In addition, we manually searched common American and European (including British) orthopaedic and podiatric scientific literature for relevant articles. Studies were eligible for inclusion only if they included the following: a standard 2-portal anterior arthroscopic approach, a minimum mean follow-up of 12 months, and detailed descriptions of all complications encountered.

RESULTS

After we considered all the potentially eligible articles, 15 (28.8%) met our inclusion criteria for the study. There were a total of 396 patients (397 ankles), with 16 total complications (4%), 3 (0.8%) of which were major. The weighted mean patient age was 31.2 years, and the weighted mean follow-up was 33.7 months.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this systematic review showed an overall incidence of complications of 4%. The complications were categorically divided into major and minor complications, with a very low incidence of major complications (0.8%) and an acceptably low incidence of minor complications (3.3%). On the basis of these findings, arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral ankle soft-tissue impingement is a very safe procedure when indicated.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, systematic review of Level IV studies.

Consensus in chronic ankle instability: aetiology, assessment, surgical indications and place for arthroscopy

Ankle sprains are the most common injuries sustained during sports activities. Most ankle sprains recover fully with non-operative treatment but 20-30% develop chronic ankle instability. Predicting which patients who sustain an ankle sprain will develop instability is difficult. This paper summarises a consensus on identifying which patients may require surgery, the optimal surgical intervention along with treatment of concomitant pathology given the evidence available today. It also discusses the role of arthroscopic treatment and the anatomical basis for individual procedures.

Anterior fibrous bundle: a cause of residual pain and restrictive plantar flexion following ankle sprain

PURPOSE

To describe anterior fibrous bundle as an intra-articular residual disorder following ankle sprain.

METHODS

Between January 1998 and January 2009, we performed arthroscopy on 10 patients (7 males, 3 females; median age, 25 years; age range, 17-43 years) who had the uncommon problem of anterior ankle pain accompanied by restriction of plantar flexion following an ankle sprain. Pre-operative magnetic resonance imaging revealed osteochondral lesions (OCLs) of the talar dome in 3 patients, but no other findings that could explain restricted plantar flexion. All patients underwent arthroscopy for investigation and treatment of the cause of symptoms, and the 3 patients with OCL underwent additional arthroscopic drilling. Outcome was measured using the American Orthopedic Foot and Ankle Society Ankle-Hindfoot Scale (AOFAS) score, Visual Analogue Scale (VAS) for pain and active plantar flexion angle.

RESULTS

In all patients, an anterior fibrous bundle was confirmed under arthroscopic investigation as the cause of symptoms and was resected arthroscopically. Median AOFAS and VAS scores improved significantly from 65 (range 61-82) and 70 (range 50-85) pre-operatively to 95 (range 84-100) and 4 (range 0-15) at final follow-up, respectively (p < 0.001). In addition, median active plantar flexion angle improved significantly from 40° (range 35-40) pre-operatively to 55° (range 45-55), (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSIONS

An anterior fibrous bundle is one of the intra-articular residual disorders after ankle sprain that can cause restriction of plantar flexion.

Arthroscopic treatment of patients with anterolateral impingement of the ankle with and without chondral lesions

Anterolateral impingement syndrome is defined as chronic pain in the ankle secondary to soft tissue impingement, hypertrophy, or tearing of the lateral and anterolateral ligaments of the ankle. The purpose of the present study was to evaluate the results of arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral impingement syndrome and its association with chondral lesions. In this case series study, 23 patients with anterolateral impingement syndrome underwent arthroscopic debridement of the ankle. Simple radiography and magnetic resonance imaging were applied for all the patients to diagnose the spur condition and to exclude patients with other possible lesions. All the patients were evaluated preoperatively and at interval visits of 2, 4, and 6 weeks and 3 and 6 months postoperatively according to the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society criteria and Meislin score. The mean patient age was 38.13 ± 6.85 years. Significant differences were seen between the mean American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society scores, which was 59.21 before surgery and 83.56 and 88.13 at 3 and 6 months postoperatively, respectively. No significant differences were seen between the American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society scores of the patients with or without chondral lesions. Arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral impingement syndrome is recommended as the treatment of choice and is still considerably effective in patients with chondral lesions.

"Web impingement" of the ankle: a case report

This case report presents two patients with persisting anterior ankle impingement pain after an ankle distortion. A web-like intra-articular fibrous band was discovered and resected. The patients presented were, after a 1-year follow-up, pain free.

Update on anterior ankle impingement

Anterior ankle impingement results from an impingement of the ankle joint by a soft tissue or osteophyte formation at the anterior aspect of the distal tibia and talar neck. It often occurs secondary to direct trauma (impaction force) or repetitive ankle dorsiflexion (repetitive impaction and traction force). Chronic ankle pain, swelling, and limitation of ankle dorsiflexion are common complaints. Imaging is valuable for diagnosis of the bony impingement but not for the soft tissue impingement, which is based on clinical findings. MR imaging and MR arthrography are helpful in doubtful diagnoses and the identification of associated injuries. Recommended methods for initial management include rest, physical therapy, and shoe modification. If nonoperative treatment fails, arthroscopic bony or soft tissue debridement both offer significant symptomatic relief with long-term positive outcomes in cases that have no significant arthritic change, associated ligament laxity, and chondral lesion.

Ankle impingement syndromes: a review of etiology and related implications

Ankle injuries are common occurrences in athletics involving and requiring extreme ranges of motion. Ankle sprains specifically occur with a 1 in 10,000 person rate in active individuals each day. If trauma is repetitive, the ankle structures have potential to experience secondary injury and dysfunction. Included in this category of dysfunction are both anterior and posterior ankle impingement syndromes where disruption of the bony structures, joint capsule, ligaments, and tendons typically occurs. Ankle impingement is described as ankle pain that occurs during athletic activity, with recurrent, extreme dorsiflexion or plantar flexion with the joint under a load. Ankle impingements can be classified according to what structures become involved both anteriorly and posteriorly. Osseous impingement, soft tissue impingement, impingement of the distal fascicle of anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament, and meniscoid lesions are all documented causes of ankle impingement. These changes tend to be brought about and exacerbated by extreme ranges of motion. Understanding various impingement types will better enable the clinician to prevent, identify, treat, and rehabilitate affected ankles. Acknowledging activities that predispose to ankle impingement syndrome will enhance prevention and recovery processes. Description of ankle impingement etiology and pathology is the objective of the current review.

Posttraumatic impingement syndrome of the ankle--indication and results of arthroscopic therapy

BACKGROUND

Persisting pain after an ankle sprain is often caused by the development of intraarticular fibrous scars or even tibiotalar spurs due to repetitive trauma. This may result in a posttraumatic impingement syndrome of the ankle. Pain is typically provoked by dorsiflexion of the ankle and palpation of the tibiotalar anterior joint space. The study evaluates the outcome of arthroscopic treatment of the ankle impingement syndrome.

METHODS

32 patients are included (16-65 years, mean age 38 years) who underwent an arthroscopic operation because of an impingement syndrome of the ankle grades I-III (Scranton) due to a trauma without therapeutic response to conservative therapy over 3 months. Diagnostic criteria were palpatoric anterior ankle joint pain and pain provoked by dorsiflexion, in cases of grades II and III lesions spurs on the X-ray as well. The mean follow-up time was 49 months. The evaluation of the results was done with the West Point Ankle Score. The study is designed as a retrospective case series.

RESULTS

26 patients reached more than 80 points in the West Point Ankle Score corresponding to a good or excellent result (mean result 86 points, ranging from 80 to 98 points). The preoperative mean score reached up to 64 points overall (57-70). Five patients rated the postoperative result fair, one bad with 73 points at mean (62-78). Preoperatively they reached 56 point on an average (48-62). The fair and the poor results were associated with severe ankle sprain leading to ligament ruptures or fractures where severe chondral lesions were to be found with arthroscopy.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of the study show that ankle arthroscopy with resection of hypertrophic synovium and fibrous bands (type I) or tibial spurs (types II and III injuries) after an ankle sprain haven proven to be a reliable therapy for a posttraumatic impingement syndrome of the ankle that does not respond to conservative treatment. It is characterized by low morbidity and good to excellent results in most cases. The outcome of arthroscopic treatment was related to the extent of chondral lesions.

Arthroscopic treatment of anterior ankle impingement

Anterior ankle impingement is a common cause of chronic ankle pain in the athletic population. Its cause can be either soft tissue or osseous in nature. Arthroscopic debridement results in favorable and reproducible outcomes. However, in the population in which ankle instability or narrowing of the ankle joint occur, outcomes may be less favorable.

Sport injuries: a review of outcomes

Injuries can counter the beneficial aspects related to sports activities if an athlete is unable to continue to participate because of residual effects of injury. We provide an updated synthesis of existing clinical evidence of long-term follow-up outcome of sports injuries. A systematic computerized literature search was conducted on following databases were accessed: PubMed, Medline, Cochrane, CINAHL and Embase databases. At a young age, injury to the physis can result in limb deformities and leg-length discrepancy. Weight-bearing joints including the hip, knee and ankle are at risk of developing osteoarthritis (OA) in former athletes, after injury or in the presence of malalignment, especially in association with high impact sport. Knee injury is a risk factor for OA. Ankle ligament injuries in athletes result in incomplete recovery (up to 40% at 6 months), and OA in the long term (latency period more than 25 years). Spine pathologies are associated more commonly with certain sports (e.g. wrestling, heavy-weight lifting, gymnastics, tennis, soccer). Evolution in arthroscopy allows more accurate assessment of hip, ankle, shoulder, elbow and wrist intra-articular post-traumatic pathologies, and possibly more successful management. Few well-conducted studies are available to establish the long-term follow-up of former athletes. To assess whether benefits from sports participation outweigh the risks, future research should involve questionnaires regarding the health-related quality of life in former athletes, to be compared with the general population.

Arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral impingement of the ankle

Anterolateral ankle impingement is due to entrapment of pathological tissues in the anterolateral aspect of the joint. The aim of this study was to evaluate the results of arthroscopic diagnosis and treatment of anterolateral ankle impingement. Twenty patients with anterolateral ankle impingement who had arthroscopic debridement were included in this prospective study, including 16 men and 4 women with a mean age of 35.8 years. Synovial hypertrophy was found in 13 patients, impinging distal fascicle of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament in 2 patients, torn anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament in 3 patients, and fibrofatty scar tissue in 2 patients. Seven patients had associated talar cartilage damage. Four patients had additional inversion injuries after the arthroscopic procedures. Final results were excellent in 11 patients, good in 6 patients, fair in 2 patients, and poor in 1 patient. One of the 7 patients with cartilage damage had excellent results, 5 patients had good results, and the remaining patient had fair results. Two of the 3 patients with complete tear of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament had fair results, and the other had a poor result. One of the 4 patients with additional inversion injuries had good results, 2 had fair results, and 1 had a poor result. In conclusion, ankle arthroscopy is useful in the diagnosis and treatment of anterolateral ankle impingement. Factors that negatively affect final outcome are associated chondral lesions of the talus, associated syndesmotic lesions, and new inversion injuries after the arthroscopic procedure.

The anterior tibio-talar ligament: one reason for anterior ankle impingement

The purpose of this study was the evaluation of the ankle's anterolateral ligament structures. We documented the anatomic situation of the ankle's anterolateral ligament structures in 33 Thiel-embalmed specimens. The ligaments had been isolated. We performed measurements on both length and orientation and additionally classified the ligaments. We also conducted histologic tissue staining. We were able to document a regular appearance of a so far not well-realized structure between the talus and the tibia, present in 26 (79%) specimens. Average length of this structure was 26 mm (in 20 degrees plantarflexion). The angular orientation in relation to the ant. tibio-fibular lig. was on average 43.7 degrees. This structure could be classified as being either isolated or widespread, with a further four sub-classifications for the orientation. Histologic staining showed parallel orientated dense collagen fibers as well as elastic fibers and hyaline cartilage in different stages of proliferation. In addition, there were neural fibers in the perivascular and the soft tissue. The histologic findings proved that the structure was a ligament. Since the ant. tibio-talar lig. is constantly present in most ankle joints, it could be considered as a regular finding. Its morphology and histology show that this ligament is loaded under tension as well as under compression. This could be one reason for anterior ankle impingement.

Evidence-based indications for ankle arthroscopy

PURPOSE

The purpose of this study was to review the literature to provide a comprehensive description of the Level of Evidence available to support the surgical technique of ankle arthroscopy for the current generally accepted indications and assign a grade of recommendation for each of them.

METHODS

A comprehensive review of the literature was performed (in August 2008) by use of the PubMed database. The abstracts from these searches were reviewed to isolate literature that described therapeutic studies investigating the results of different ankle arthroscopic treatment techniques. All articles were reviewed and assigned a classification (I-IV) of Level of Evidence. An analysis of the literature reviewed was used to assign a grade of recommendation for each current generally accepted indication for ankle arthroscopy.

RESULTS

There exists fair evidence-based literature (grade B) to support a recommendation for the use of ankle arthroscopy for the treatment of ankle impingement and osteochondral lesions and for ankle arthrodesis. Ankle arthroscopy for ankle instability, septic arthritis, arthrofibrosis, and removal of loose bodies is supported with only poor-quality evidence (grade C). Treatment of ankle arthritis, excluding isolated bony impingement, is not effective and therefore this indication is not recommended (grade C against). Finally, there is insufficient evidence-based literature to support or refute the benefit of arthroscopy for the management of synovitis and fractures (grade I).

CONCLUSIONS

There exists adequate evidence-based literature to support the surgical technique of ankle arthroscopy for most current generally accepted indications; however, further studies in this area are needed.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, systematic review.

Chronic isolated distal tibiofibular syndesmotic disruption: diagnosis and management

BACKGROUND

The current study outlines the pathology and treatment of persistent problems following isolated distal tibiofibular syndesmotic injuries.

METHODS

A retrospective study was conducted to review patients with isolated chronic syndesmotic disruption who were managed in the authors' institute during 4 years, from January 2001 to January 2005. Patients with concomitant bony injuries or lateral ankle instability were excluded.

RESULTS

The study included eleven patients with isolated syndesmotic disruption. All were males, with average duration of symptoms 4.7 years. Reconstruction of syndesmosis was achieved by semitendinosus tendon in all patients. The average hospital stay was 3.6 days, and the average follow up period was 3.1 years. According to West Point Ankle Score system, the average score after treatment was 95.4.

CONCLUSION

Chronic isolated tibiofibular syndesmotic disruption appears amenable to accurate diagnosis and delayed stabilization. Arthroscopic management of the associated intraarticular pathology followed by reconstruction of torn syndesmosis can offer an excellent outcome.

Chronic lateral ankle instability: the effect of intra-articular lesions on clinical outcome

BACKGROUND

There has been no attempt to correlate the type and number of intra-articular lesions with the results of ligament reconstruction for chronic lateral ankle instability.

HYPOTHESIS

Certain intra-articular lesions affect the clinical outcome of ligament reconstruction.

STUDY DESIGN

Case series; Level of evidence, 4.

METHODS

Sixty-five ankles from 64 patients underwent a modified Broström operation for chronic lateral ankle instability with a mean follow-up of 28.7 months (range, 12-67). The results were assessed according to the Karlsson-Peterson Ankle Score. The type of intra-articular lesions and the association of clinical outcome were investigated using Pearson's correlation coefficient and multivariate logistic regression analysis.

RESULTS

The average Karlsson-Peterson Ankle Score was improved from 53 +/- 14.63 preoperatively to 85.21 +/- 11.97 at final follow-up (P < .001). Five different intra-articular lesions were described in 63 ankles (96.9%), and the ankle score negatively correlated with the number of lesions (r = -.604; P < .001). Multivariate logistic regression showed that syndesmosis widening (odds ratio, 11.1; 95% confidence interval: 2.2-55.4; P = .003), osteochondral lesions of the talus (odds ratio, 8.5; 95% confidence interval: 1.7-42.3; P = .008), and ossicles (odds ratio, 4.5; 95% confidence interval: 1.0-20.2; P = .046) are significant predictors of unsatisfactory results after ligament reconstruction.

CONCLUSION

Arthroscopic diagnosis and treatment of intra-articular lesions associated with chronic lateral ankle instability is a safe and effective method. The presence of any combination of associated intra-articular lesions can result in a poor outcome.

Anterolateral ankle impingement: findings and diagnostic accuracy with ultrasound imaging

OBJECTIVE

The objective was to evaluate the findings and diagnostic accuracy of ultrasound in antero-lateral ankle impingement (ALI) with clinical and arthroscopic correlation.

DESIGN AND PATIENTS

Seventeen elite footballers with chronic ankle pain were referred for ultrasound with a clinical diagnosis of ALI (n = 8) or a control condition (n = 9; lateral mechanical instability, osteochondral defect, intra-articular bodies and osteoarthritis). Ultrasound examination included the antero-lateral gutter for abnormal synovial tissue (synovitic lesion), lateral ligament integrity, tibiotalar joint and osseous spurs of the distal tibia and talus. Ultrasound findings were correlated with subsequent arthroscopic appearance.

RESULTS

Ultrasound examination detected a synovitic mass in the antero-lateral gutter in all 8 footballers with clinical ALI (100%) and in 2 patients with a control diagnosis (22%). Arthroscopic correlation of antero-lateral synovitis and fibrosis was present in all 10 cases (100%). The synovitic lesion was seen at ultrasound as a nodular soft tissue mass of mixed echogenicity within the antero-lateral gutter, which extruded anteriorly with manual compression of the distal fibula against the tibia. Increased blood supply was detected using power Doppler imaging in only 1 patient. The synovitic lesion measured >10 mm in its maximum dimension in 7 footballers with clinical ALI and <10 mm in the control group. Additional ultrasound findings in patients with abnormal antero-lateral synovial tissue included an anterior talofibular ligament injury in all patients (n = 10), a tibiotalar joint effusion (n = 6) and osseous spurs (n = 4). Antero-lateral synovitic tissue was accurately identified at ultrasound in the absence of an effusion (n = 4). No synovitic lesion was detected at ultrasound or arthroscopy in the remaining 7 patients with a control diagnosis.

CONCLUSION

Ultrasound is accurate in detecting synovitic lesions within the antero-lateral gutter, demonstrating associated ligamentous injuries and in differentiating soft tissue from osseous impingement. Synovitic lesions in two control patients suggest that abnormal antero-lateral soft tissue does not necessarily imply the presence of symptomatic ALI. Synovitic lesions in excess of 10 mm were associated with symptoms. Ultrasound will not demonstrate osteocartilaginous lesions or stress fractures and may overlook some loose bodies. Ultrasound findings together with clinical correlation can be used to direct arthroscopic examination and surgical debridement.

Treatment of anterolateral impingements of the ankle joint by arthroscopy

Impingement syndromes of the ankle joint are among the most common intraarticular ankle lesions. Soft tissue impingement lesions of the ankle usually occur as a result of synovial, or capsular irritation secondary to traumatic injuries, usually ankle sprains, leading to chronic ankle pain. The aim of this prospective study was to evaluate arthroscopic debridement of an anterolateral soft tissue impingement of the ankle. During the period between October 2000 and February 2004, 23 patients with residual complaints after an ankle sprain were diagnosed as anterolateral impingement of the ankle, and were treated by arthroscopic debridement. At a minimum of 6 months follow up, patients were asked to complete an American orthopaedic foot and ankle society (AOFAS) ankle and hind foot score. The average follow-up was 25 months (range 12-38). The average pre-operative patient assessed AOFAS score was 34 (range 4-57). At the end of follow-up the mean AOFAS score was 89 (range 60-100). In terms of patient satisfaction 22 patients said they would accept the same arthroscopic procedure again for the same complaints. At the end of follow-up, 7 patients had excellent results, and 14 patients had good results while two patients had fair results. We believe that arthroscopic debridement of the anterolateral impingement soft tissues are a good, and effective method of treatment.

The distal fascicle of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament as a cause of tibiotalar impingement syndrome: a current concepts review

Impingement syndromes of the ankle involve either osseous or soft tissue impingement and can be anterior, anterolateral, or posterior. Ankle impingement syndromes are painful conditions caused by the friction of joint tissues, which are both the cause and the effect of altered joint biomechanics. The distal fascicle of the anterior inferior tibiofibular ligament (AITFL) is possible cause of anterior impingement. The objective of this article was to review the literature concerning the anatomy, pathogenesis, symptoms and treatment of the AITFL impingement and finally to formulate treatment recommendations. The AITFL starts from the distal tibia, 5 mm in average above the articular surface, and descends obliquely between the adjacent margins of the tibia and fibula, anterior to the syndesmosis to the anterior aspect of the lateral malleolus. The incidence of the accessory fascicle differs very widely in the several studies. The presence of the distal fascicle of the AITFL and also the contact with the anterolateral talus is probably a normal finding. It may become pathological, due to anatomical variations and/or anterolateral instability of the ankle resulting from an anterior talofibular ligament injury. When observed during an ankle arthroscopy, the surgeon should look for the criteria described to decide whether it is pathological and considering resection of the distal fascicle. The presence of the AITFL and the contact with the talus is a normal finding. An impingement of the AITFL can result from an anatomical variant or anteroposterior instability of the ankle. The diagnosis of ligamentous impingement in the anterior aspect of the ankle should be considered in patients who have chronic ankle pain in the anterolateral aspect of the ankle after an inversion injury and have a stable ankle, normal plain radiographs, and isolated point tenderness on the anterolateral aspect of the talar dome and in the anteroinferior tibiofibular ligament. The impingement syndrome can be treated arthroscopically.

Ankle instability and impingement

Ankle instability and ankle impingement are well-known complications of an ankle sprain. Both diagnosis are made primarily by history and physical examination. Ankle instability may resolve with physical therapy, but can require surgical reconstruction. Anatomic reconstruction is preferred whenever possible. Ankle impingement usually requires surgical treatment. Anterior soft tissue impingement and mild bony impingement confined to the tibia can be treated arthroscopically, whereas more severe anterior bony impingement and any form of posterior impingement require an open procedure. Ankle ligament reconstruction and surgical treatment of ankle impingement are reliably effective procedures.

Intra-articular fibrous band of the ankle: an uncommon cause of post-traumatic ankle pain

A case of an intra-articular fibrous band of the ankle is presented with emphasis on the MR imaging appearances. This entity is an important but uncommon cause of post-traumatic ankle pain and is well recognized within the arthroscopy literature, but there is little if any documentation of this condition in the imaging literature.

Alternatives to ankle implant arthroplasty for posttraumatic ankle arthrosis

Various surgical options beyond implant arthroplasty are available to treat posttraumatic ankle arthrosis. Conservative options are usually employed in combination and include the use of nonsteroidal anti-inflammatories, bracing, and orthoses, as well as injections of intra-articular corticosteroid and hyaluronic acid. If these conservative treatments fail, surgical intervention can be entertained. Alternatives to total ankle implant arthroplasty include (1) arthroscopic debridement, (2) arthrodiastasis, (3) peri-articular resurfacing using allograft or cartilage transplantation, and (4) peri-articular osteotomies to correct angular, rotational, or translational malalignment. However, ankle arthrodesis is the standard technique for end-stage ankle arthrosis. This article reviews the literature and presents an in-depth surgical technique for each procedure. The article also describes how to prevent and address the most common complications.

Current concepts: treatment of osteochondral ankle defects

Osteochondral ankle defects cause various symptoms including pain, swelling, and limited range of motion. When surgical treatment is necessary, several treatment options exist. Arthroscopic debridement and drilling, arthroscopic autologous osteochondral transplantation (mosaiclasty), and autologous chondrocyte transplantation are discussed more extensively. Treatment results of each technique are discussed, and a guideline for treatment is presented.

Clinical outcome of the arthroscopic management of sports-related "anterior ankle pain": a prospective study

Anterior impingement syndrome is a generally accepted diagnosis for a condition characterized by anterior ankle pain with limited and painful dorsiflexion. The cause can be either soft tissue or bony obstruction. We reviewed 26 (16 male and 10 female) athletes with a mean age of 27 years treated arthroscopically for symptoms due to soft-tissue (group I, n = 12) and bony obstruction (group II, n = 14). They suffered from anterior pain, reduction of dorsiflexion and recurrent swelling with severe impairment in their sports activities. There was no clinical improvement for at least 6 months despite of conservative treatment with a mean duration of symptoms about 20 months. There were no further operations. Evaluation included the Karlsson ankle rating score, the activity score of Tegner, and a visual analogue scale (VAS) reflecting patients' pain. Conventional radiographs and Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) were done preoperatively. All patients were available for follow up after 31 months (range, 25-48 months) with a significant improvement (p < 0.05) of the Karlsson score from 66 to a mean of 92 at the follow-up examination. The mean Tegner score was eight points compared to three points preoperatively. Regarding the subjective assessment observed by the decrease of pain and the ability of the athelete to return to competition sport, there were 25 very satisfied and one unsatisfied athlete. No significant difference in the outcome of group I and II (p > 0.05) could be estimated. The results demonstrate ' excellent ' to ' good ' results for arthroscopic treatment of sports-related anterior ankle pain in a group of athletes who were involved in competition sport. The promising clinical results confirm an effective way of treating soft-tissue and bony impingement. In addition, we recommend prior to surgery, an adequate course of non-operative treatment, including modifications in the exercise program and athletic activity.

Arthroscopic treatment of soft-tissue impingement lesions of the ankle in adolescents

BACKGROUND

Ankle sprains are common injuries in adolescents. Most are treated conservatively with rest, ice, antiinflammatory medication, and rehabilitation. A small percentage of patients develop chronic pain and functional instability secondary to intraarticular soft-tissue impingement. This study evaluated the effectiveness of ankle arthroscopy for the treatment of functional instability of the ankle with pain specifically in adolescents between the ages of 13 and 19 years.

METHODS

We evaluated 11 patients at an average of 25 (range 15 to 38) months after arthroscopic debridement. The American Orthopaedic Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) ankle and hindfoot score was used to evaluate outcomes. In addition, four questions were asked: 1) Are you satisfied with the outcome of your surgery? 2) Would you have the procedure again? 3) Would you recommend it to a friend? 4) Have you returned to your preinjury level of activity.

RESULTS

The average postoperative AOFAS score was 95 (range 75 to 100). We found that 10 of 11 patients had good to excellent results with arthroscopic debridement of soft-tissue, intraarticular impingement lesions. All but one patient was satisfied with the procedure and all stated that they would have the procedure again. Two patients had repeat injuries and one subsequently developed reflex sympathetic dystrophy. These two patients had not yet returned to their preinjury level of activity at last followup.

CONCLUSIONS

We found ankle arthroscopy to be a safe and effective means of treatment in adolescents with functional instability from soft-tissue ankle impingement.

Arthroscopic treatment of anterolateral soft tissue impingement of the ankle: evaluation of factors affecting outcome

PURPOSE

To evaluate the results for patients treated arthroscopically for anterolateral soft tissue impingement syndrome, to determine the factors affecting the outcome, and to report on a synovial shelf.

TYPE OF STUDY

Retrospective clinical review.

METHODS

Forty-one patients underwent operative arthroscopy for anterolateral impingement of the ankle between 1990 and 2001; the mean follow-up was 83.7 months (range, 21 to 152 months). There were 25 men and 16 women with an average age of 33.2 years (range, 15 to 63 years). All patients reported a history of inversion injury to the ankle. The most frequent preoperative complaints were tenderness localized to the anterolateral aspect of the ankle, swelling, crepitation, and pain at weight-bearing. All patients had failed to respond to at least 3 months of conservative treatment. The results were assessed according to Meislin's criteria and the American Orthopaedics Foot and Ankle Society (AOFAS) scoring table. For statistical analysis, the Mann-Whitney U test was used where appropriate and the significance was set at P < .005.

RESULTS

According to Meislin's criteria, there were excellent results in 21 patients, good in 16, fair in 2, and poor in 2. The mean AOFAS score was 89.6 points (range, 60-100) at follow-up. Four different soft tissue pathologies causing impingement were described. It has been statistically shown that cartilage damage located at the anterolateral region of the ankle and not advanced to the subchondral bone, and repeated inversion injuries had negative effects on clinical results at long-term follow-up.

CONCLUSIONS

The arthroscopic diagnosis and treatment of anterolateral soft tissue impingement is a safe and effective method. Any combination of associated intra-articular pathologies, such as a chondral lesion or a new inversion injury of the ankle, after the arthroscopic procedure resulted in a poor outcome.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Level IV, Therapeutic Study.

Evaluation of the Sports Ankle Rating System in young, athletic individuals with acute lateral ankle sprains

The purpose of this paper is to introduce the Sports Ankle Rating System and provide the initial validation for its use. As its name implies, this outcomes measurement system is intended for use in assessing the functional outcomes of athletes with ankle injuries. This unique system consists of three distinct instruments: the Quality of Life Measure, the Clinical Rating Score, and the Single Assessment Numeric Evaluation. We began the validation process of the Sports Ankle Rating System with subjects who had sustained lateral ankle sprains because this is the most common injury in sports. The results of this study indicate that the Sports Ankle Rating System is: 1. effective at assessing the impact that an ankle sprain has on an athlete's functional and psychosocial status, 2. responsive to changes in an athlete's ankle-related health status, and 3. valid and reliable as tested.

Arthroscopic treatment of impingement of the ankle reduces pain and enhances function

A consecutive series of 105 patients with a median age of 35 (16-62) years who were operated on with arthroscopic resection for impingement of the ankle using standardized technique without distraction is presented. All patients complained of painful dorsiflexion and had failed to respond to conservative treatment. A total of 177 diagnoses were found, soft tissue impingement or synovitis in 89, anterior bony impingement in 44, chondral lesion in 20, loose bodies in 16 and osteoarthritis in eight. At follow-up after 2 years, 65 patients were pain free while 28 patients had experienced reduction of pain. Gait was improved in 30/41 patients and 22 resumed sporting activities. The results were graded excellent in 67, good in 25, fair in six and poor in seven patients. There were four deep infections and one synovial fistula in this series. The deep infections all responded well to arthroscopic synovectomy and intravenous antibiotics. In one patient persistent symptoms were recorded. Ankle arthroscopy yielded good results in the treatment of anterior impingement of the ankle as it effectively reduced pain and enhanced function.

Soft-tissue disorders of the ankle: a comprehensive arthroscopic approach

Ankle arthroscopy has dramatically advanced in the past decade. Many ailments of the ankle joint that were previously treated through open approaches are today treated with arthroscopic techniques. Arthroscopy allows for a more rapid recovery, better visualization of soft tissue lesions within the ankle joint and a more thorough examination of intracapsular ankle pathology. This article describes current arthroscopic treatments of ankle pathology limited to soft tissue structures. Additionally, a perspective is presented for the comprehensive treatment of lateral ankle pain including arthroscopic lateral ankle stabilization.

Arthroscopic assessment of occult intra-articular injury in acute ankle fractures

PURPOSE

To arthroscopically assess the pattern and extent of intra-articular damage associated with ankle fractures.

TYPE OF STUDY

Prospective case series.

METHODS

From 1989 to 1998, 48 consecutive patients with acute unstable ankle fractures underwent ankle arthroscopy followed by reduction and internal fixation. In addition, all injuries were categorized by specific osseous, ligamentous, and articular pathology, based on clinical and arthroscopic examination. Whenever possible, the fractures were classified according to Lauge-Hansen and Danis-Weber schemes.

RESULTS

Traumatic articular surface lesions (TASLs), including chondral defects and osteochondral lesions measuring greater than 5 mm in diameter, were identified in 30 of the 48 ankles (63%), with 11 lesions localized to the tibia and 19 noted on the talus. The tibial lesions were at the posterior syndesmotic ligament insertion in 6 cases, at the anterior capsule origin in 3 cases, and at the central articular surface in 2 cases. Of the 19 talar lesions, 15 involved the medial dome and 4 involved the lateral articulation. TASLs of the talus in this series were uniformly unstable or displaced and virtually devoid of subchondral bone, precluding satisfactory internal fixation. Of the 10 pronation-external rotation fractures, 7 had articular surface defects with 5 involving the medial and 2 the lateral dome. Ten of the 24 supination-external rotation or Danis-Weber B fractures were found to have TASLs of the talus, 9 medial and 1 lateral. Nine of 12 fractures with syndesmosis disruptions sustained full-thickness damage to the talar chondral surface (P =.01).

CONCLUSIONS

Ankle fractures have a high incidence of concomitant intra-articular pathology with syndesmosis disruption portending a particularly high risk of articular surface injury to the talar dome. Arthroscopy is a valuable tool in identifying and treating intra-articular damage that would otherwise remain unrecognized and may provide prognostic information regarding the functional outcome of these injuries.