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McKeon HP, Schepens MAA, van den Brand AD, de Jong MH, van Gelder MMHJ, Hesselink ML, Sopel MM, Mengelers MJB. Assessment of Mycotoxin Exposure and Associated Risk in Pregnant Dutch Women: The Human Biomonitoring Approach. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:278. [PMID: 38922172 PMCID: PMC11209130 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16060278] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2024] [Revised: 06/07/2024] [Accepted: 06/13/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Mycotoxins are toxic secondary metabolites produced by various fungi that can contaminate food crops, which, in turn, may lead to human exposure. Chronic exposure to mycotoxins can cause adverse health effects including reproductive and developmental toxicity. Pregnant women and their foetuses present a vulnerable group for exposure to mycotoxins that can cross the placenta. Human biomonitoring of mycotoxins provides a real-life approach to estimate internal exposure. In this pilot study, 24-h urine samples from 36 pregnant Dutch women were analysed for aflatoxin M1 (AFM1), total deoxynivalenol (DON), de-epoxy-deoxynivalenol (DOM-1), total zearalenone (ZEN), total α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), total β-zearalenol (β-ZEL) and total zearalanone (ZAN), where 'total' refers to mycotoxins and their conjugated forms. Serum samples from these women were analysed for fumonisin B1 (FB1) and ochratoxin A (OTA). All samples were measured using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The most prevalent mycotoxins were total DON, total ZEN and OTA, with a detection frequency of 100%. DOM-1, total α-ZEL and total β-ZEL were detected but to a lesser extent, while AFM1, total ZAN and FB1 were undetected. Median concentrations were 4.75 μg total DON/L, 0.0350 μg DOM-1/L, 0.0413 μg total ZEN/L, 0.0379 μg total α-ZEL/L, 0.0189 μg total β-ZEL/L, and 0.121 μg OTA/L. The calculated median concentration for total ZEN and its metabolites was 0.105 μg/L. Based on two separate risk assessment approaches, total DON exposure in this group was considered to be of low concern. Similarly, exposure to total ZEN and its metabolites in this group was of low concern. For OTA, the risk of non-neoplastic effects was of low concern based on exposure in this group, and the risk of neoplastic effects was of low concern in the majority of participants in this group. The findings of this pilot study confirm the presence of mycotoxins in the urine and serum of pregnant Dutch women, with total DON, total ZEN, and OTA most frequently detected. Exposure to all measured mycotoxins was considered to be of low concern in this group, except for exposure to OTA, which was of low concern for the majority of participants. The study's findings offer valuable insights but should be confirmed using a larger and more diverse sample of the Dutch general population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah P. McKeon
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands (M.J.B.M.)
| | - Marloes A. A. Schepens
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands (M.J.B.M.)
| | - Annick D. van den Brand
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands (M.J.B.M.)
| | - Marjolein H. de Jong
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands (M.J.B.M.)
| | | | - Marijn L. Hesselink
- Department of Paediatrics, Maastricht University Medical Centre (MUMC+), P. Debyelaan 25, 6229 HX Maastricht, The Netherlands;
- School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism (NUTRIM), Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 40, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Marta M. Sopel
- Wageningen Food Safety Research (WSFR), 6708 WB Wageningen, The Netherlands;
| | - Marcel J. B. Mengelers
- National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), 3720 BA Bilthoven, The Netherlands (M.J.B.M.)
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Lazofsky A, Brinker A, Gupta R, Barrett E, Aleksunes LM, Rivera-Núñez Z, Buckley B. Optimized extraction and analysis methods using liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry for zearalenone and metabolites in human placental tissue. Heliyon 2023; 9:e16940. [PMID: 37484340 PMCID: PMC10361036 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e16940] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2023] [Revised: 05/31/2023] [Accepted: 06/01/2023] [Indexed: 07/25/2023] Open
Abstract
Zearalenone and its metabolites, a group of endocrine disrupting mycotoxins, have been linked to adverse reproductive health effects. They cross the placental barrier, potentially reaching the fetus. In this study, we adapted and optimized our protocol previously used for urine, to measure these mycotoxins in human placentas. We combined a supported liquid extraction step using Chem Elut cartridges with solid phase extraction on Discovery® DSC-NH2 tubes. The optimized extraction efficiencies were between 68 and 80% for all metabolites. Analysis was performed by UHPLC-HRMS using a Betasil™ Phenyl-Hexyl column eluted with a gradient of acetonitrile-methanol-water. The chromatography method separated all analytes in under 15 min. Validation experiments confirmed the method's sensitivity, with LODs ranging from 0.0055 to 0.011 pg/mg tissue. The method was linear over a range of 0.0025-1.5 pg/mg tissue with R2 values ≥ 0.994. Precision and accuracy calculations ranged from 4.7-7.9% and 0.6-6.7% respectively. The method was then successfully applied to a subset of placenta samples (n = 25) collected from an ongoing prospective birth cohort. Interestingly, 92% of the samples contained at least one measurable zearalenone metabolite, providing initial indication of potentially widespread exposure during pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abigail Lazofsky
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Anita Brinker
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Ruby Gupta
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health and Justice, Rutgers School of Public Health, Rutgers University, 683 Hoes Lane West, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Emily Barrett
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Rutgers School of Public Health, Rutgers University, 683 Hoes Lane West, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Lauren M. Aleksunes
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, 160 Frelinghuysen Road, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Rutgers Center for Lipid Research, New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition, and Health, Rutgers University, 61 Dudley Road, New Brunswick, NJ, 08901, USA
| | - Zorimar Rivera-Núñez
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Rutgers School of Public Health, Rutgers University, 683 Hoes Lane West, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
| | - Brian Buckley
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, 170 Frelinghuysen Road, Piscataway, NJ, 08854, USA
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Bai J, Li J, Liu N, Jia H, Si X, Zhou Y, Zhai Z, Yang Y, Ren F, Wu Z. Zearalenone induces apoptosis and autophagy by regulating endoplasmic reticulum stress signalling in porcine trophectoderm cells. ANIMAL NUTRITION (ZHONGGUO XU MU SHOU YI XUE HUI) 2022; 12:186-199. [PMID: 36712409 PMCID: PMC9851881 DOI: 10.1016/j.aninu.2022.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2022] [Revised: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 08/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA), a mycotoxin produced mainly by fungi belonging to Fusarium species in foods and feeds, causes a serious hazard to humans and animals. Numerous studies have revealed that ingesting ZEA can disrupt the reproductive function and impair the reproductive process in animals. This experiment was to investigate the toxicological effect and the mechanism of ZEA exposure on reproduction in pigs during early stages of pregnancy. In the present study, we treated with 0 to 80 μmol/L ZEA for 12 or 24 h in trophoblast ectoderm (pTr) cells. The results showed that ZEA had significantly decreased cell proliferation (P < 0.05), which was accompanied by DNA damage-related cell cycle arrest at G2/M phase, activation of the apoptosis and endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress, as well as impairment of barrier function (P < 0.05). Western blot analysis and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that exposure to ZEA can activation of autophagy in pTr cells. Importantly, pretreatment with chloroquine (CQ) or 3-methyladenine (3-MA) led to increased apoptosis in pTr cells. Interestingly, pTr cells pretreated with 4-phenylbutyric acid (4-PBA), an inhibitor of ER stress, resulted in reduced cell death in pTr cells, indicating a critical role for ER stress in the activation of autophagy. In conclusion, these results reveal that ZEA-triggered ER stress is critical for the cell fate decision of pTr cells during early porcine embryonic development. Application of small molecules with ability of blocking ER stress might be therapeutic option to reduce the deleterious effect of ZEA in pregnant animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jun Bai
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Jun Li
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Ning Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Hai Jia
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Xuemeng Si
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Yusong Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zhian Zhai
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Ying Yang
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Fazheng Ren
- Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China
| | - Zhenlong Wu
- State Key Laboratory of Animal Nutrition, Department of Companion Animal Science, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China,Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Food Nutrition and Human Health, China Agricultural University, Beijing, 100193, China,Corresponding author.
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Kinkade CW, Rivera-Núñez Z, Gorcyzca L, Aleksunes LM, Barrett ES. Impact of Fusarium-Derived Mycoestrogens on Female Reproduction: A Systematic Review. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:373. [PMID: 34073731 PMCID: PMC8225184 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13060373] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/29/2021] [Revised: 05/17/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Contamination of the world's food supply and animal feed with mycotoxins is a growing concern as global temperatures rise and promote the growth of fungus. Zearalenone (ZEN), an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi, is a common contaminant of cereal grains and has also been detected at lower levels in meat, milk, and spices. ZEN's synthetic derivative, zeranol, is used as a growth promoter in United States (US) and Canadian beef production. Experimental research suggests that ZEN and zeranol disrupt the endocrine and reproductive systems, leading to infertility, polycystic ovarian syndrome-like phenotypes, pregnancy loss, and low birth weight. With widespread human dietary exposure and growing experimental evidence of endocrine-disrupting properties, a comprehensive review of the impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites on the female reproductive system is warranted. The objective of this systematic review was to summarize the in vitro, in vivo, and epidemiological literature and evaluate the potential impact of ZEN, zeranol, and their metabolites (commonly referred to as mycoestrogens) on female reproductive outcomes. We conducted a systematic review (PROSPERO registration CRD42020166469) of the literature (2000-2020) following the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) guidelines. The data sources were primary literature published in English obtained from searching PubMed, Web of Science, and Scopus. The ToxR tool was applied to assess risk of bias. In vitro and in vivo studies (n = 104) were identified and, overall, evidence consistently supported adverse effects of mycoestrogens on physiological processes, organs, and tissues associated with female reproduction. In non-pregnant animals, mycoestrogens alter follicular profiles in the ovary, disrupt estrus cycling, and increase myometrium thickness. Furthermore, during pregnancy, mycoestrogen exposure contributes to placental hemorrhage, stillbirth, and impaired fetal growth. No epidemiological studies fitting the inclusion criteria were identified.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carolyn W. Kinkade
- Joint Graduate Program in Exposure Science, Department of Environmental Sciences, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; (Z.R.-N.); (L.M.A.)
| | - Zorimar Rivera-Núñez
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; (Z.R.-N.); (L.M.A.)
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Ludwik Gorcyzca
- Joint Graduate Program in Toxicology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08554, USA;
| | - Lauren M. Aleksunes
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; (Z.R.-N.); (L.M.A.)
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
- Rutgers Center for Lipid Research, New Jersey Institute for Food, Nutrition, and Health, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ 08901, USA
| | - Emily S. Barrett
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA; (Z.R.-N.); (L.M.A.)
- Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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Case-Control Study of Nodding Syndrome in Acholiland: Urinary Multi-Mycotoxin Screening. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050313. [PMID: 33925470 PMCID: PMC8145943 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2021] [Revised: 04/21/2021] [Accepted: 04/24/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
This case-control study adds to the growing body of knowledge on the medical, nutritional, and environmental factors associated with Nodding Syndrome (NS), a seizure disorder of children and adolescents in northern Uganda. Past research described a significant association between NS and prior history of measles infection, dependence on emergency food and, at head nodding onset, subsistence on moldy maize, which has the potential to harbor mycotoxins. We used LC-MS/MS to screen for current mycotoxin loads by evaluating nine analytes in urine samples from age-and-gender matched NS cases (n = 50) and Community Controls (CC, n = 50). The presence of the three mycotoxins identified in the screening was not significantly different between the two groups, so samples were combined to generate an overall view of exposure in this community during the study. Compared against subsequently run standards, α-zearalenol (43 ± 103 µg/L in 15 samples > limit of quantitation (LOQ); 0 (0/359) µg/L), T-2 toxin (39 ± 81 µg/L in 72 samples > LOQ; 0 (0/425) µg/L) and aflatoxin M1 (4 ± 10 µg/L in 15 samples > LOQ; 0 (0/45) µg/L) were detected and calculated as the average concentration ± SD; median (min/max). Ninety-five percent of the samples had at least one urinary mycotoxin; 87% were positive for two of the three compounds detected. While mycotoxin loads at NS onset years ago are and will remain unknown, this study showed that children with and without NS currently harbor foodborne mycotoxins, including those associated with maize.
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Pan P, Ying Y, Ma F, Zou C, Yu Y, Li Y, Li Z, Fang Y, Huang T, Ge RS, Wang Y. Zearalenone disrupts the placental function of rats: A possible mechanism causing intrauterine growth restriction. Food Chem Toxicol 2020; 145:111698. [PMID: 32858132 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2020.111698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2020] [Revised: 08/17/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone is an estrogenic mycotoxin produced by a variety of Fusarium fungi. There is evidence that exposure to zearalenone can cause intrauterine growth restriction, but little is known about the mechanism in the rat placenta caused by zearalenone. From gestational day 14-21, female Sprague Dawley rats (60 days old) were gavaged with zearalenone (0, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg/day body weight). Zearalenone dose-dependently reduced serum LH and FSH levels of dams at ≥ 5 mg/kg. RNA-seq and qPCR showed that zearalenone significantly down-regulated Slc38a1 expression at 2.5 mg/kg, Echs1 and Pc at 10 mg/kg, as well as Slc1a5, Cd36, Ldlr, Hadhb, and Cyp17a1 expression at a dose of 20 mg/kg, while it up-regulated the expression of Notch signal (Dvl1 and Jag 1). After zearalenone treatment, their proteins showed a similar trend. Zearalenone reduced the phosphorylation of AKT1, ERK1/2, and mTOR at 5 mg/kg or higher and 4EBP1 at 5 mg/kg. Zearalenone also increased BECLIN1, LC3B, and p62 levels and elevated BAX/BCL2 and CASP3/PROCASP3 ratios. In conclusion, zearalenone disrupts placental function such as reduction of nutrient transport and lipid metabolism possibly via AKT1/ERK1/2/mTOR-mediated autophagy and apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peipei Pan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Yingfen Ying
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Feifei Ma
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Cheng Zou
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Yige Yu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Zengqiang Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Yinghui Fang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Tongliang Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Ren-Shan Ge
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China.
| | - Yiyan Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China.
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Pan P, Ma F, Wu K, Yu Y, Li Y, Li Z, Chen X, Huang T, Wang Y, Ge RS. Maternal exposure to zearalenone in masculinization window affects the fetal Leydig cell development in rat male fetus. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2020; 263:114357. [PMID: 32229375 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2020.114357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2019] [Revised: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone is a phenolic Fusarium mycotoxin, which is ubiquitous in human and animal feedstuff and often co-occurs with other mycotoxins. ZEA has been reported to disturb Leydig cell function and even cause the apoptosis to the Leydig cells. However, the effects of gestational exposure to zearalenone on fetal Leydig cells and the underlying mechanism remain unknown. Sprague Dawley dams were daily gavaged with 0, 2.5, 5, 10, and 20 mg/kg body weight ZEA from gestational day 14-21. On gestational day 21, rats were euthanized and serum testosterone levels were measured, and testes were collected for further evaluation of Leydig cell number, cell size, gene, and protein expression. Zearalenone significantly decreased anogenital distance and its index of male fetus, serum testosterone levels, Leydig cell proteins (SCARB1, STAR, CYP11A1, CYP17A1, and INSL3), and fetal Leydig cell number at 10 and/or 20 mg/kg by delaying the commitment of stem Leydig cells into the Leydig cell lineage and proliferation. Further study found that Notch signaling (RFNG, PSEN1, NOTCH1, and NOTCH3) was up-regulated by zearalenone. In conclusion, gestational exposure to high doses of zearalenone (10 and 20 mg/kg) blocks fetal Leydig cell development, thus possibly causing the anomalies of the male reproductive tract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peipei Pan
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Feifei Ma
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Keyang Wu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Yige Yu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Yang Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Zengqiang Li
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Xiuxiu Chen
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Tongliang Huang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Yiyan Wang
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China
| | - Ren-Shan Ge
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, The Second Affiliated Hospital and Yuying Children's Hospital of Wenzhou Medical University, Wenzhou, Zhejiang, 325027, China.
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Zhou Y, Zhang D, Sun D, Cui S. Zearalenone affects reproductive functions of male offspring via transgenerational cytotoxicity on spermatogonia in mouse. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2020; 234:108766. [PMID: 32339757 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2020.108766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/22/2020] [Accepted: 04/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Previous studies have demonstrated that Zearalenone (ZEA) affects not only maternal reproductive function but also that of the offspring. However, the transgenerational toxic effects of ZEA on the spermatogonia of male F1 mice are not clear. The present study was thus designed to determine whether the fertility of male F1 mice was affected following exposure of F0 pregnant mice to ZEA. In present study, 32 pregnant female mice were divided into 4 groups and exposed to ZEA of 0, 2.5 and 5.0 mg/kg, respectively, and the testis development and reproductive performance of 96 male F1 mice were analyzed. The results demonstrated that the F0 pregnant mice treated with ZEA resulted in increased anogenital distances in the newborn male F1 mice. Moreover, ZEA caused abnormal vacuole structures and loose connections in the testes of male F1 offspring, compared with the controls. Further ultramicrostructural analysis showed that the mitochondria appeared to be vacuolated with ablated membranes and cristae, and this was accompanied by the presence of large lipid droplets in the spermatogonia. Further, the semen quality and sperm counts declined significantly, and increased malformation rates and decreased testosterone levels were observed in the male F1 offspring from experimental groups. Our results reveal the toxic effects of ZEA on F0 pregnant mice is transgenerational, and affects the fertility of male F1 mice by damaging the spermatogonial cells. This offers a new viewpoint of ZEA-induced reproductive toxicity in male animals and provides a new potential direction for the treatment and prevention of ZEA-induced cytotoxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yewen Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Di Zhang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China
| | - Dehao Sun
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China.
| | - Sheng Cui
- State Key Laboratory of Agrobiotechnology, College of Biological Sciences, China Agricultural University, Beijing 100193, People's Republic of China; College of Veterinary Medicine, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Jiangsu Co-Innovation Center for Prevention and Control of Important Animal Infectious Diseases and Zoonoses, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China; Joint International Research Laboratory of Agriculture and Agri-Product Safety, the Ministry of Education of China, Yangzhou University, Yangzhou 225009, Jiangsu, People's Republic of China.
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Franco LT, Ismail A, Amjad A, Oliveira CAFD. Occurrence of toxigenic fungi and mycotoxins in workplaces and human biomonitoring of mycotoxins in exposed workers: a systematic review. TOXIN REV 2020. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2020.1795685] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Tuanny Franco
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, Pirassununga, Brazil
| | - Amir Ismail
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
| | - Adnan Amjad
- Institute of Food Science and Nutrition, Bahauddin Zakariya University, Multan, Pakistan
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Arnold C. Tracking Zearalenone: Placental Transfer of a Fungal Toxin. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2020; 128:74001. [PMID: 32648767 PMCID: PMC7350757 DOI: 10.1289/ehp6540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2019] [Accepted: 11/15/2019] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
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Szilagyi JT, Gorczyca L, Brinker A, Buckley B, Laskin JD, Aleksunes LM. Placental BCRP/ABCG2 Transporter Prevents Fetal Exposure to the Estrogenic Mycotoxin Zearalenone. Toxicol Sci 2020; 168:394-404. [PMID: 30576553 DOI: 10.1093/toxsci/kfy303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
In the placenta, the breast cancer resistance protein (BCRP)/ABCG2 efflux transporter limits the maternal-to-fetal transfer of drugs and chemicals. Previous research has pointed to the estrogenic mycotoxin zearalenone as a potential substrate for BCRP. Here, we sought to assess the role of the BCRP transporter in the transplacental disposition of zearalenone during pregnancy. In vitro transwell transport assays employing BCRP/Bcrp-transfected Madine-Darby canine kidney cells and BeWo trophoblasts with reduced BCRP expression were used to characterize the impact of BCRP on the bidirectional transport of zearalenone. In both models, the presence of BCRP protein increased the basolateral-to-apical transport and reduced the apical-to-basolateral transport of zearalenone over a 2-h period. In vivo pharmacokinetic analyses were then performed using pregnant wild-type and Bcrp-/- mice after a single tail vein injection of zearalenone. Zearalenone and its metabolite α-zearalenol were detectable in serum, placentas, and fetuses from all animals, and β-zearalenol was detected in serum and fetuses, but not placentas. There were no significant differences in the maternal serum concentrations of any analytes between the two genotypes. In Bcrp-/- mice, the free fetal concentrations of zearalenone, α-zearalenol, and β-zearalenol were increased by 115%, 84%, and 150%, respectively, when compared with wild-type mice. Concentrations of free zearalenone and α-zearalenol were elevated 145% and 78% in Bcrp-/- placentas, respectively, when compared with wild-type placentas. Taken together, these data indicate that the placental BCRP transporter functions to reduce the fetal accumulation of zearalenone, which may impact susceptibility to developmental toxicities associated with in utero zearalenone exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- John T Szilagyi
- Joint Graduate Program in Toxicology, Rutgers University School of Graduate Studies, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854
| | - Ludwik Gorczyca
- Joint Graduate Program in Toxicology, Rutgers University School of Graduate Studies, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854
| | - Anita Brinker
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute
| | - Brian Buckley
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute
| | - Jeffrey D Laskin
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute.,Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health
| | - Lauren M Aleksunes
- Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute.,Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rutgers University, Piscataway, New Jersey 08854
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Fusarium Mycotoxins Disrupt the Barrier and Induce IL-6 Release in a Human Placental Epithelium Cell Line. Toxins (Basel) 2019; 11:toxins11110665. [PMID: 31739567 PMCID: PMC6891427 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11110665] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/11/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Deoxynivalenol, T-2 toxin, and zearalenone, major Fusarium mycotoxins, contaminate human food on a global level. Exposure to these mycotoxins during pregnancy can lead to abnormalities in neonatal development. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate the effects of Fusarium mycotoxins on human placental epithelial cells. As an in vitro model of placental barrier, BeWo cells were exposed to different concentrations of deoxynivalenol, zearalenone or T-2 toxin. Cytotoxicity, effects on barrier integrity, paracellular permeability along with mRNA and protein expression and localization of junctional proteins after exposure were evaluated. Induction of proinflammatory responses was determined by measuring cytokine production. Increasing mycotoxin concentrations affect BeWo cell viability, and T-2 toxin was more toxic compared to other mycotoxins. Deoxynivalenol and T-2 toxin caused significant barrier disruption, altered protein and mRNA expression of junctional proteins, and induced irregular cellular distribution. Although the effects of zearalenone on barrier integrity were less prominent, all tested mycotoxins were able to induce inflammation as measured by IL-6 release. Overall, Fusarium mycotoxins disrupt the barrier of BeWo cells by altering the expression and structure of junctional proteins and trigger proinflammatory responses. These changes in placental barrier may disturb the maternal–fetal interaction and adversely affect fetal development.
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Warth B, Preindl K, Manser P, Wick P, Marko D, Buerki-Thurnherr T. Transfer and Metabolism of the Xenoestrogen Zearalenone in Human Perfused Placenta. ENVIRONMENTAL HEALTH PERSPECTIVES 2019; 127:107004. [PMID: 31596610 PMCID: PMC6867367 DOI: 10.1289/ehp4860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Pregnancy is a sensitive condition during which adverse environmental exposures should be monitored thoroughly and minimized whenever possible. In particular, the hormone balance during gestation is delicate, and disturbance may cause acute or chronic long-term health effects. A potential endocrine disruption may be provoked by in utero exposure to xenoestrogens mimicking endogenous estrogens. The mycoestrogen zearalenone (ZEN), a toxic fungal secondary metabolite and mycotoxin found frequently in food and feed, constitutes a prominent example. OBJECTIVES We performed a comprehensive assessment of the transfer as well as phase I and phase II metabolism of ZEN at the human placental barrier. METHODS Human placentas were perfused with 1μM (318μg/L) ZEN for 6 h. Samples from the maternal and fetal compartment, placental tissue, and fetal plasma were analyzed by a highly sensitive UHPLC-MS/MS assay to detect ZEN as well as nine key metabolites (α-zearalenol, β-zearalenol, zearalanone, α-zearalanol, β-zearalanol, ZEN-14-glucuronide, α-zearalenol-14-glucuronide, β-zearalenol-14-glucuronide, ZEN-14-sulfate). RESULTS The model revealed a fast maternofetal transfer of ZEN across the human placental barrier. We also unraveled phase I and phase II metabolism of the parent toxin ZEN into the approximately 70-times more estrogenic α-zearalenol and the less active ZEN-14-sulfate conjugate, which are effectively released into the maternal and fetal circulation in considerable amounts. CONCLUSIONS Our findings suggest that exposure to ZEN (such as through consumption of ZEN-contaminated cereal-based products) during pregnancy may result in in utero exposure of the fetus, not only to ZEN but also some of its highly estrogenically active metabolites. In the light of the known affinity of ZEN and potentially co-occurring xenoestrogens to the estrogen receptor, and our results demonstrating placental transfer of ZEN and its metabolites in an ex vivo model, we recommend further research and more comprehensive assessment of gestational exposures in women. https://doi.org/10.1289/EHP4860.
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Affiliation(s)
- Benedikt Warth
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Research Network Chemistry, Microbiology and Environmental Systems Science, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Karin Preindl
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Pius Manser
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Peter Wick
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
| | - Doris Marko
- Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, Faculty of Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Tina Buerki-Thurnherr
- Laboratory for Particles-Biology Interactions, Empa, Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, St. Gallen, Switzerland
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Rai A, Das M, Tripathi A. Occurrence and toxicity of a fusarium mycotoxin, zearalenone. Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr 2019; 60:2710-2729. [DOI: 10.1080/10408398.2019.1655388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 85] [Impact Index Per Article: 17.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ankita Rai
- Food, Drugs and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) CSIR-IITR campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Mukul Das
- Food, Drugs and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) CSIR-IITR campus, Lucknow, India
| | - Anurag Tripathi
- Food, Drugs and Chemical Toxicology Group, CSIR- Indian Institute of Toxicology Research, Lucknow, India
- Academy of Scientific and Innovative Research (AcSIR) CSIR-IITR campus, Lucknow, India
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Tuanny Franco L, Mousavi Khaneghah A, In Lee SH, Fernandes Oliveira CA. Biomonitoring of mycotoxin exposure using urinary biomarker approaches: a review. TOXIN REV 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/15569543.2019.1619086] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Larissa Tuanny Franco
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Amin Mousavi Khaneghah
- Department of Food Science, Faculty of Food Engineering, University of Campinas (UNICAMP), São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Sarah Hwa In Lee
- Department of Food Engineering, School of Animal Science and Food Engineering, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
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Li R, Andersen CL, Hu L, Wang Z, Li Y, Nagy T, Ye X. Dietary exposure to mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) during post-implantation adversely affects placental development in mice. Reprod Toxicol 2019; 85:42-50. [PMID: 30772436 DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2019.01.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/04/2018] [Revised: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is a common food contaminant (ppb-ppm) derived from Fusarium fungi. With its estrogenicity and potential chronic exposure, ZEA poses a risk to pregnancy. Our previous studies implied post-implantational lethality by ZEA. Since a functional placenta is essential for fetal development and survival, it was hypothesized that ZEA may have adverse effects on placental development leading to post-implantational lethality. Exposure of young mice to 0, 0.8, 4, 10, and 40 ppm ZEA diets from gestation day 5.5 (D5.5) to D13.5 led to increased resorption of implantation sites, increased placental hemorrhage, decreased placental and fetal weights, proportionally reduced placental layers, and disorganized placental labyrinth vascular spaces in the 40 ppm ZEA group, as well as lipid accumulation in the labyrinth layer of all four ZEA treatment groups examined on D13.5. These data demonstrate adverse effects of ZEA on placental development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rong Li
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; Reproductive Developmental Biology Group, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (NIEHS/NIH), 111 TW Alexander Drive, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA.
| | - Christian Lee Andersen
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Lianmei Hu
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; College of Veterinary Medicine, South China Agriculture University, Guangzhou, 510642, China.
| | - Zidao Wang
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Yuehuan Li
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Tamas Nagy
- Department of Pathology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
| | - Xiaoqin Ye
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA; Interdisciplinary Toxicology Program, University of Georgia, Athens, GA, USA.
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Yang D, Jiang X, Sun J, Li X, Li X, Jiao R, Peng Z, Li Y, Bai W. Toxic effects of zearalenone on gametogenesis and embryonic development: A molecular point of review. Food Chem Toxicol 2018; 119:24-30. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2018.06.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2018] [Revised: 05/29/2018] [Accepted: 06/01/2018] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
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18
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Fleck SC, Churchwell MI, Doerge DR, Teeguarden JG. Urine and serum biomonitoring of exposure to environmental estrogens II: Soy isoflavones and zearalenone in pregnant women. Food Chem Toxicol 2016; 95:19-27. [PMID: 27255803 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2016.05.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2016] [Revised: 05/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/28/2016] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Urine and serum biomonitoring was used to measure internal exposure to selected dietary estrogens in a cohort of 30 pregnant women. Exposure was measured over a period comprising one-half day in the field (6 h) and one day in a clinic (24 h). Biomonitoring of the dietary phytoestrogens genistein (GEN), daidzein (DDZ) and equol (EQ), as well as the mycoestrogen, zearalenone (ZEN) and its congeners, was conducted using UPLC-MS/MS. Biomonitoring revealed evidence of internal exposure to naturally occurring dietary estrogens during pregnancy. Urinary concentrations of total GEN, DDZ and EQ were similar to levels reported for general adult U.S. POPULATION Measurable concentrations of total (parent and metabolites) GEN, DDZ and EQ were present in 240, 207 and 2 of 270 serum samples, respectively. Six out of 30 subjects had measurable concentrations of unconjugated GEN and/or DDZ in serum between 0.6 and 7.1 nM. Urine to serum total isoflavone ratios for GEN, DDZ and EQ were 13, 47, and 180, respectively. ZEN and its reductive metabolite, α-zearalenol (α-ZEL), were present in pregnant women (11 out of 30 subjects) as conjugates at levels near the limit of quantification. The average total urinary concentration was 0.10 μg/L for ZEN and 0.11 μg/L for α-ZEL.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie C Fleck
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Mona I Churchwell
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Daniel R Doerge
- Division of Biochemical Toxicology, National Center for Toxicological Research, U.S. Food and Drug Administration, Jefferson, AR 72079, USA.
| | - Justin G Teeguarden
- Health Effects and Exposure Science, Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, USA; Department of Environmental and Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 93771, USA.
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Duringer J, Fombonne E, Craig M. No Association between Mycotoxin Exposure and Autism: A Pilot Case-Control Study in School-Aged Children. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8070224. [PMID: 27447670 PMCID: PMC4963856 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2016] [Revised: 07/06/2016] [Accepted: 07/08/2016] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Evaluation of environmental risk factors in the development of autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is needed for a more complete understanding of disease etiology and best approaches for prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. A pilot experiment in 54 children (n = 25 ASD, n = 29 controls; aged 12.4 ± 3.9 years) screened for 87 urinary mycotoxins via liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry to assess current exposure. Zearalenone, zearalenone-4-glucoside, 3-acetyldeoxynivalenol, and altenuene were detected in 9/54 (20%) samples, most near the limit of detection. No mycotoxin/group of mycotoxins was associated with ASD-diagnosed children. To identify potential correlates of mycotoxin presence in urine, we further compared the nine subjects where a urinary mycotoxin was confirmed to the remaining 45 participants and found no difference based on the presence or absence of mycotoxin for age (t-test; p = 0.322), gender (Fisher’s exact test; p = 0.456), exposure or not to selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors (Fisher’s exact test; p = 0.367), or to other medications (Fisher’s exact test; p = 1.00). While no positive association was found, more sophisticated sample preparation techniques and instrumentation, coupled with selectivity for a smaller group of mycotoxins, could improve sensitivity and detection. Further, broadening sampling to in utero (mothers) and newborn-toddler years would cover additional exposure windows.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Duringer
- Department of Environmental & Molecular Toxicology, Oregon State University, 139 Oak Creek Building, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
| | - Eric Fombonne
- Department of Psychiatry, Institute for Development & Disability, Oregon Health & Science University, 840 SW Gaines St., Portland, OR 97239, USA.
| | - Morrie Craig
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Oregon State University, 105 Magruder Hall, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
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20
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Huuskonen P, Auriola S, Pasanen M. Zearalenone metabolism in human placental subcellular organelles, JEG-3 cells, and recombinant CYP19A1. Placenta 2015; 36:1052-5. [PMID: 26188906 DOI: 10.1016/j.placenta.2015.06.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2015] [Revised: 06/24/2015] [Accepted: 06/26/2015] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) and its derivative, zearalanone (ZAN), are endocrine disruptive mycotoxins produced by Fusarium species. We investigated the human placental metabolism of ZEN and ZAN in vitro in JEG-3 cells, human term placental subcellular fractions and recombinant enzymes. Human placental enzymes were capable of metabolizing ZEN and ZAN to their primary OH-metabolites which have higher affinity for estrogen receptors than their parent compounds. These metabolites may interfere with physiological placental estrogen signaling and thus disrupt the progress of gestation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasi Huuskonen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland.
| | - Seppo Auriola
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Markku Pasanen
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, FIN-70211 Kuopio, Finland
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21
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Xiao J, Wang Q, Bircsak KM, Wen X, Aleksunes LM. In Vitro Screening of Environmental Chemicals Identifies Zearalenone as a Novel Substrate of the Placental BCRP/ ABCG2 Transporter. Toxicol Res (Camb) 2015; 4:695-706. [PMID: 26052432 DOI: 10.1039/c4tx00147h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The BCRP (ABCG2) transporter is responsible for the efflux of chemicals from the placenta to the maternal circulation. Inhibition of BCRP activity could enhance exposure of offspring to environmental chemicals leading to altered reproductive, endocrine, and metabolic development. The purpose of this study was to characterize environmental chemicals as potential substrates and inhibitors of the human placental BCRP transporter. The interaction of BCRP with a panel of environmental chemicals was assessed using the ATPase and inverted plasma membrane vesicle assays as well as a cell-based fluorescent substrate competition assay. Human HEK cells transfected with wild-type BCRP or the Q141K genetic variant, as well as BeWo placental cells that endogenously express BCRP were used to further test inhibitor and substrate interactions. To varying degrees, the eleven chemicals inhibited BCRP activity in activated ATPase membranes and inverted membrane vesicles. Further, genistein, zearalenone, and tributyltin increased the retention of the fluorescent BCRP substrate, Hoechst 33342, between 50-100% in BeWo cells. Additional experiments characterized the mycotoxin and environmental estrogen, zearalenone, as a novel substrate and inhibitor of BCRP in WT-BCRP and BeWo cells. Interestingly, the BCRP genetic variant Q141K exhibited reduced efflux of zearalenone compared to the wild-type protein. Taken together, screening assays and direct quantification experiments identified zearalenone as a novel human BCRP substrate. Additional in vivo studies are needed to directly determine whether placental BCRP prevents fetal exposure to zearalenone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingcheng Xiao
- China Pharmaceutical University, Gulou, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Kristin M Bircsak
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Xia Wen
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Piscataway, NJ, USA
| | - Lauren M Aleksunes
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Piscataway, NJ, USA ; Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences Institute, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ, USA
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Zearalenone exposure modulates the expression of ABC transporters and nuclear receptors in pregnant rats and fetal liver. Toxicol Lett 2012; 211:246-56. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2012.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2011] [Revised: 03/29/2012] [Accepted: 04/02/2012] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Videmann B, Koraichi F, Mazallon M, Lecoeur S. Effect of gender, pregnancy and exposure conditions on metabolism and distribution of zearalenone in rats. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2012. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2011.1319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin zearalenone (ZEA) is produced by a variety of Fusarium fungi and contaminates numerous cereals, fruits and vegetables. Interacting with the oestrogen receptors, ZEA and reduced metabolites zearalenols (ZOLs) cause hormonal effects in animals, such as abnormalities in the development of the reproductive tract and mammary gland in female offspring. Limited information is available on the pharmacokinetics of ZEA and its metabolites, particularly in pregnant females, foetuses and newborns. Our study was conducted to characterise the tissue distribution and metabolism of ZEA in male and female rats in various physiological states (virgin female, pregnant female) and exposure conditions (subcutaneous versus oral exposure, single versus repeated exposure to 1 mg/kg ZEA). Respective placental and mammary transfer to foetuses and newborns was evaluated. In all states and exposure conditions, α-ZOL and the glucuronides of ZEA and α-ZOL were the predominant metabolites, mostly concentrated in the intestine, the liver and the urine. Toxins were very low or undetectable in most of the tissues 24 h after ZEA exposure, except in foetal livers. Absorption and intestinal glucuronidation of ZEA were higher in males than females. α-ZOL concentration was significantly higher in the intestine and liver of males and pregnant females, compared to virgin females. ZEA and all its metabolites easily crossed the placental barrier and transferred into the milk. ZEA was metabolised in the foetal and neonatal stages, glucuronides being the main form detected in all organs. Metabolite elimination was slower in foetal tissues than in maternal tissues. All toxin concentrations in the foetal and neonatal tissues strongly increased in cases of repeated maternal exposure. A better knowledge of the metabolism and transfer of ZEA in foetuses and newborns will help to evaluate the health risk that such endocrine disruptors represent in these stages.
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Affiliation(s)
- B. Videmann
- National Institute for Agronomic Research, UMR 1233 INRA-VetAgroSup, Campus Vétérinaire de Lyon, 1 av. Bourgelat, 69 280 Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - F. Koraichi
- National Institute for Agronomic Research, UMR 1233 INRA-VetAgroSup, Campus Vétérinaire de Lyon, 1 av. Bourgelat, 69 280 Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - M. Mazallon
- National Institute for Agronomic Research, UMR 1233 INRA-VetAgroSup, Campus Vétérinaire de Lyon, 1 av. Bourgelat, 69 280 Marcy l'Etoile, France
| | - S. Lecoeur
- National Institute for Agronomic Research, UMR 1233 INRA-VetAgroSup, Campus Vétérinaire de Lyon, 1 av. Bourgelat, 69 280 Marcy l'Etoile, France
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The effects of different endocrine disruptors defining compound-specific alterations of gene expression profiles in the developing testis. Reprod Toxicol 2012; 33:106-15. [DOI: 10.1016/j.reprotox.2011.12.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2011] [Revised: 12/20/2011] [Accepted: 12/24/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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25
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Ayed Y, Ayed-Boussema I, Ouanes Z, Bacha H. In vitro and in vivo induction of chromosome aberrations by alpha- and beta-zearalenols: comparison with zearalenone. Mutat Res 2011; 726:42-6. [PMID: 21889607 DOI: 10.1016/j.mrgentox.2011.08.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2011] [Revised: 07/29/2011] [Accepted: 08/15/2011] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEN) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium fungi. It contaminates different components of the food chain and can cause serious economic and public health problems. The major metabolites of ZEN in various animal species are alpha- and beta-zearalenol (α-, β-ZOL). Some in vivo studies have shown that these two metabolites are as toxic as the mother molecule (ZEN), but other investigations have demonstrated that α- and β-ZOL are less toxic than ZEN. Thus, the aim of the present study was to evaluate cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of α- and β-ZOL in vivo, in mouse bone-marrow cells and in vitro, in cultured HeLa cells, and to compare it with ZEN. ZEN showed the same cytotoxicity as α-ZOL and both are more cytotoxic than β-ZOL. Genotoxicity of ZEN and its derivatives was assessed by the chromosome aberration assay. Our results show that ZEN as well as α- and β-ZOL increased the percentage of chromosome aberrations in mouse bone-marrow cells and in HeLa cells. In the two systems, ZEN and α-ZOL exhibited the same range of genotoxicity and both were more genotoxic than β-ZOL. Furthermore, our results show that either ZEN or its two metabolites inhibited cell viability in a dose-dependent manner. We conclude that biotransformation of ZEN may be considered as only a partial detoxification pathway since the resulting metabolites remain relatively toxic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yosra Ayed
- Laboratory for Research on Biologically Compatible Compounds, Faculty of Dentistry, Monastir, Tunisia
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Scientific Opinion on the risks for public health related to the presence of zearalenone in food. EFSA J 2011. [DOI: 10.2903/j.efsa.2011.2197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 280] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
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Metzler M, Pfeiffer E, Hildebrand A. Zearalenone and its metabolites as endocrine disrupting chemicals. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2010. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2010.1244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 133] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (ZEA) is a macrocyclic β-resorcylic acid lactone produced by numerous species of Fusarium. It frequently contaminates corn and cereal products in many regions of the world. The biological activity of ZEA is dominated by its pronounced oestrogenicity, which is even enhanced in certain reductive metabolites. This review updates the metabolism in fungi, plants and mammalian systems, as well as the pharmacokinetics of ZEA. The present evidence for the hormonal effects of the parent mycoestrogen and some of its metabolites in vitro and in farm and experimental animals in vivo is reviewed, together with its association with endocrine-disruptive effects in humans. Possible mechanisms of the oestrogenic and carcinogenic activity of ZEA are discussed and future areas of research proposed.
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Affiliation(s)
- M. Metzler
- Chair of Food Chemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Bldg. 50.41, Adenauerring 20, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - E. Pfeiffer
- Chair of Food Chemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Bldg. 50.41, Adenauerring 20, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - A. Hildebrand
- Chair of Food Chemistry, Institute of Applied Biosciences, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Bldg. 50.41, Adenauerring 20, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Prouillac C, Videmann B, Mazallon M, Lecoeur S. Induction of cells differentiation and ABC transporters expression by a myco-estrogen, zearalenone, in human choriocarcinoma cell line (BeWo). Toxicology 2009; 263:100-7. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2009.06.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2009] [Revised: 06/25/2009] [Accepted: 06/26/2009] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
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Othmen ZOB, Golli EE, Abid-Essefi S, Bacha H. Cytotoxicity effects induced by Zearalenone metabolites, alpha Zearalenol and beta Zearalenol, on cultured Vero cells. Toxicology 2008; 252:72-7. [PMID: 18755238 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2008.07.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2008] [Revised: 07/07/2008] [Accepted: 07/26/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Zearalenone (Zen) is a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by several species of Fusarium. It has been implicated in several mycotoxicosis in farm animals and in humans. The major metabolites of this mycotoxin in various species are alpha and beta Zearalenol. In vivo, Zen is mainly reduced to these alcoholic metabolites which cause reproductive tract disorders and impaired fertility due to their estrogenic activities. In this study, we examined the cytotoxicity of alpha and beta Zearalenol in cultured cells. For this purpose, the MTT assay was carried out and the influence of alpha and beta Zearalenol on protein and DNA syntheses was assessed. To evaluate the cell stress caused by these two metabolites, oxidative stress measured by MDA induction and stress protein induction (Hsp 70, Hsp 27) were tested. Results showed that alpha and beta Zearalenol were metabolites that caused cytotoxicity by inhibiting cell viability, protein and DNA syntheses and inducing oxidative damage and over-expression of stress proteins. However, the Zen metabolites exhibited lower toxicity than Zen, with beta zearalenol being the more active of the two metabolites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zouhour Ouanes-Ben Othmen
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Substances Biologiquement Compatibles (LRSBC), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Rue Avicenne, 5019 Monastir, Tunisia.
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Ouanes-Ben Othmen Z, Essefi S, Bacha H. Mutagenic and epigenetic mechanisms of zearalenone: prevention by Vitamin E. WORLD MYCOTOXIN J 2008. [DOI: 10.3920/wmj2008.1036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
It has been suggested that zearalenone, a non-steroidal estrogenic mycotoxin produced by Fusarium graminearium, causes DNA damage. However, the mutagenic properties of this toxin are controversial. The purpose of this study was to investigate both genotoxic and epigenetic effects of zearalenone in vitro. The effects of zearalenone on unscheduled DNA synthesis (UDS), induction of chromosome aberrations and inhibition of gap junctional intercellular communication were determined using Vero cells. The results show that in Vero cells, zearalenone treatment caused a concentration-dependent increase in UDS, induced chromosome aberrations and inhibited gap junctional intercellular communication. All of these effects were either prevented or reduced by co-treatment with the antioxidant vitamin E. The results support the hypothesis that in Vero cells zearalenone-induced oxidative stress is involved in and precedes all of the studied effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Z. Ouanes-Ben Othmen
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Substances Biologiquement Compatibles (LRSBC), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Rue Avicenne, 5019 Monastir, Tunisie
| | - S. Essefi
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Substances Biologiquement Compatibles (LRSBC), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Rue Avicenne, 5019 Monastir, Tunisie
| | - H. Bacha
- Laboratoire de Recherche sur les Substances Biologiquement Compatibles (LRSBC), Faculté de Médecine Dentaire, Rue Avicenne, 5019 Monastir, Tunisie
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Tsakmakidis IA, Lymberopoulos AG, Vainas E, Boscos CM, Kyriakis SC, Alexopoulos C. Study on the in vitro effect of zearalenone and alpha-zearalenol on boar sperm-zona pellucida interaction by hemizona assay application. J Appl Toxicol 2007; 27:498-505. [PMID: 17370237 DOI: 10.1002/jat.1239] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
The mycotoxin zearalenone (zen) impairs fertility in farm animals. The aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of zearalenone and its major metabolite (alpha-zearalenol) on boar semen binding capacity, under in vitro conditions. Extended boar semen was exposed to three different concentrations of zen and alpha-zen (40, 60 and 80 microg ml(-1) of semen) for 1 h. Afterwards, the semen was washed and incubated with homologous oocyte hemizona for 4 h. A significant decrease (P < 0.001) in the number of tightly attached spermatozoa on the hemizona was obtained at concentrations of 60 microg ml(-1) and 80 microg ml(-1) of zen and alpha-zen. In conclusion, zen and alpha-zen affected the sperm-zona interaction by reducing the ability of boar spermatozoa to bind to the zona pellucida.
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Affiliation(s)
- I A Tsakmakidis
- NAGREF, Veterinary Research Institute, Ionia, 57008 Thessaloniki, Greece
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Goyarts T, Dänicke S, Brüssow KP, Valenta H, Ueberschär KH, Tiemann U. On the transfer of the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) from sows to their fetuses during days 35–70 of gestation. Toxicol Lett 2007; 171:38-49. [PMID: 17544604 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2007.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2006] [Revised: 04/11/2007] [Accepted: 04/12/2007] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Eleven pregnant sows with a body weight between 153 and 197 kg were fed a control diet (CON, 0.15 mg DON and 0.0035 mg ZON/kg diet) or a diet containing 15% of Fusarium toxin contaminated triticale (MYCO, 4.42 mg DON and 0.048 mg ZON/kg diet) in the period of day 35 and 70 of gestation. The indirect effect of feed intake was separated from the direct effects of the Fusarium toxins by the restricted feeding regimen where all sows were fed the same amount of feed (2000 g/d) over the whole study. At the end of experiment, fetuses were delivered by Caesarian section and samples of serum, bile, urine, liver, kidney and spleen of euthanatized sows and fetuses were taken to analyze the concentrations of DON, ZON and their metabolites. Feeding the Fusarium toxin contaminated diet to pregnant sows caused neither adverse effects on performance, organ weights and maintenance of pregnancy of sows nor on fetus weight and length. Furthermore, no teratogenic or embryolethal effects could be observed in the MYCO group. Hematological and clinical-chemical parameters of sows and fetuses were not affected by feeding, with the exception of significantly lower GLDH (glutamate dehydrogenase) serum activities in MYCO sows. The carry over of DON and ZON from the diet to the sow or fetus tissues was calculated by the diet ratio (sum of concentrations of all metabolites in the physiological specimen divided by the dietary toxin concentration), while the fetus ratio was evaluated by the sum of concentrations of all metabolites in the physiological specimen of the fetus divided by that of the sows. DON and deepoxy-DON were found in urine, bile, serum, liver, kidney and spleen of sows of the MYCO group, but not in the bile of fetuses (spleen not analyzed). ZON and its metabolite alpha-zearalenol (alpha-ZOL) were detected in urine and bile of sows, while all specimens of fetuses as well as serum and liver of sows were negative for ZON metabolites. The maximum diet ratios for urine and bile in sows of the MYCO group were 0.84 and 0.05 for DON metabolites and 1.2 and 3.8 for ZON metabolites, underscoring the differences in metabolism and excretion of both toxins. The maximum diet ratio of DON and deepoxy-DON into liver, kidney and spleen of MYCO sows were 0.003, 0.007 and 0.003, respectively. The maximum fetus ratio of DON and deepoxy-DON into urine, bile, serum, liver and kidney of fetuses were 0.006, 0, 0.5, 0.88, and 0.33, while the maximum placental ratio (sum of toxin concentrations in the physiological specimen of the fetus divided by the toxin serum concentration of the sow) were 0.64, 0, 0.50, 0.70 and 0.52, respectively. Therefore, it can be concluded that the developing fetus is exposed to DON between the gestation days 35 and 70 when the sows are fed a Fusarium toxin contaminated diet. ZON concentration in the MYCO diet was too low to get reliable results for fetus or placental ratios.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Goyarts
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Federal Agricultural Research Centre Braunschweig (FAL), Bundesallee 50, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany
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Dänicke S, Brüssow KP, Goyarts T, Valenta H, Ueberschär KH, Tiemann U. On the transfer of the Fusarium toxins deoxynivalenol (DON) and zearalenone (ZON) from the sow to the full-term piglet during the last third of gestation. Food Chem Toxicol 2007; 45:1565-74. [PMID: 17399880 DOI: 10.1016/j.fct.2007.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2006] [Revised: 12/29/2006] [Accepted: 02/13/2007] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Pregnant sows were fed either a control diet (CON, n=8, 0.21 mg DON and 0.004 mg ZON/kg diet) or a diet containing 40% of a Fusarium toxin contaminated wheat (MYCO, n=7, 9.57 mg DON and 0.358 mg ZON/kg diet) from day 75 to 110 of gestation. Piglets were delivered by Caesarean section at the end. Spleen weights of piglets from the MYCO group were significantly lower. Hemoglobin concentration and hematocrit were also significantly decreased in these piglets, although this effect was more obvious in female than in male piglets. The transfer of DON and ZON was evaluated by the diet ratio (sum of concentrations of all metabolites in the physiological specimen divided by the dietary toxin concentration) and the piglet ratio (sum of concentrations of all metabolites in the physiological specimen of the piglet divided by that of the sows). The diet ratio for the liver (sows only) amounted to 0.001 (DON+de-epoxy-DON) and 0.016 (ZON and metabolites). The diet ratios of DON in bile reached up to 0.041 and 0.003 for sows and piglets, respectively, and those for ZON up to 2.896 and 0.128. The piglet ratios in bile varied up to 0.309 and 0.518 for DON and ZON, respectively, whereas nearly similar DON concentrations were found in serum of piglets and sows (median piglet ratio of 0.750). The results of the study suggest that the developing fetus is exposed to DON, ZON and their metabolites when the sows are fed a Fusarium toxin contaminated diet.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Dänicke
- Institute of Animal Nutrition, Federal Agricultural Research Centre Braunschweig (FAL), Bundesallee 50, D-38116 Braunschweig, Germany.
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