Rapid neurobehavioral analysis of Pfiesteria piscicida effects in juvenile and adult rats

Behavioral effects and drug vulnerability in rats exposed to Pfiesteria toxin

Pfiesteria piscicida is a dinoflagellate which has a lethal effect on fish and also causes a syndrome of toxic effects in humans. Cognitive impairment is a prominent aspect of Pfiesteria's toxicity, and this neurocognitive effect resulting from toxin exposure has been demonstrated previously in a rat model. Four experiments are presented here, which replicate, confirm and extend some of the initial research and also show that similar cognitive deficits result from exposure to the toxin of another species, Pfiesteria shumwayae. Rats were given intraperitoneal injections of filtered water taken from toxic Pfiesteria cultures and tested in the radial arm maze (RAM). In two experiments, exposure to toxin from either species (piscicida or shumwayae) retarded acquisition of RAM performance in a non-interrupted win-shift RAM paradigm. A scopolamine challenge showed increased vulnerability to anticholinergic effects in exposed rats, even after nondrugged RAM performance was not different from controls. A third experiment featured a more difficult RAM test which included a 150-min interruption-delay. Toxin exposure also degraded performance in this version of the RAM, and the impairment was potentiated by the scopolamine challenge. The fourth experiment demonstrated retarded learning of the reversal of a RAM procedure which tested reference memory. In agreement with earlier research, these results indicate that Pfiesteria toxin interferes with the learning required to adapt to changing behavioral requirements. They also demonstrate that a latent toxin-produced CNS dysfunction persists after behavior appears normal, as revealed by potentiation of scopolamine's impairment of efficient RAM performance.

Chronic biotoxin-associated illness: Multiple-system symptoms, a vision deficit, and effective treatment

Blooms of toxigenic organisms have increased in spatial and temporal extent due to human activities and natural forces that alter ecologic habitats and pollute the environment. In aquatic environments, harmful algal blooms pose a risk for human health, the viability of organisms, and the sustainability of ecosystems. The estuarine dinoflagellate, Pfiesteria piscicida, was discovered in the late 1980s at North Carolina State University as a contaminant in fish cultures. P. piscicida was associated with fish death in laboratory aquaria, and illness among laboratory workers who inhaled the mist above aquaria. Both the fish and humans exhibited signs of toxicity. During the 1990s, large-scale mortality among fish and other aquatic organisms was associated with high concentrations of Pfiesteria sp. in estuaries on the eastern seaboard of North America from New York to Texas. Illness among humans was associated with direct exposure to estuaries and exposures to estuarine aerosols around the time of Pfiesteria-related fish kills. This review of the scientific literature on associations between Pfiesteria and human illness identified some of the possible mechanisms of action by which putative Pfiesteria toxins may have caused morbidity. Particular attention was given to the Pfiesteria-associated, human-illness syndrome known as Possible Estuary Associated Syndrome (PEAS). PEAS was characterized by multiple-system symptoms, deficits in neuropsychological tests of cognitive function, and rapid and severe decrements in visual contrast sensitivity (VCS), an indicator of neurologic function in the visual system. PEAS was diagnosed in acute and chronic illness cases, and was reacquired during re-exposure. Rapid normalization of PEAS signs and symptoms was achieved through the use of cholestyramine therapy. Cholestyramine, a non-absorbable polymer, has been used by humans to lower cholesterol levels since it was approved for that use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration in 1958. When dissolved in water or juice and taken orally, cholestyramine binds with cholesterol, bile acids, and salts in the intestines, causing them to be eliminated rather than reabsorbed with bile during enterohepatic recirculation. Cholestyramine also has been reported to bind and eliminate a variety of toxic substances. The efficacy of cholestyramine therapy in treatment of PEAS supported the hypothesis that PEAS is a biotoxin-associated illness.

Identical ribosomal DNA sequence data from Pfiesteria piscicida (Dinophyceae) isolates with different toxicity phenotypes

Complete small subunit ribosomal RNA, internal transcribed spacer 1 and 2, 5.8S, and partial large subunit ribosomal RNA gene sequences were generated from multiple isolates of Pfiesteria piscicida. Sequences were derived from isolates that have been shown to be ichthyotoxic as well as isolates that have no history of toxic behavior. All of the sequences generated were identical for the different cultures, and we therefore conclude that differences in toxicity seen between isolates of P. piscicida are linked to factors other than genetic strain variation detectable by ribosomal gene sequence analyses.

Learning impairment caused by a toxin produced by Pfiesteria piscicida infused into the hippocampus of rats

Pfiesteria piscicida, an estuarine dinoflagellate, which has been shown to kill fish, has also been associated with neurocognitive deficits in humans. With a rat model, we have demonstrated the cause-and-effect relationship between Pfiesteria exposure and learning impairment. In several studies, we have replicated the finding in Sprague-Dawley rats that exposure to fixed acute doses of Pfiesteria cells or filtrates caused radial-arm maze learning impairment. Recently, this finding of Pfiesteria-induced learning impairment in rats has been independently replicated in another laboratory as well. We have demonstrated significant Pfiesteria-induced learning impairment in both the win-shift and repeated-acquisition tasks in the radial-arm maze and in reversal learning in a visual operant signal detection task. These learning impairments have been seen as long as 10 weeks after a single acute exposure to Pfiesteria. In the current study, we used a hydrophilic toxin isolated from clonal P. piscicida cultures (PfTx) and tested its effect when applied locally to the ventral hippocampus on repeated acquisition of rats in the radial-arm maze. Toxin exposure impaired choice accuracy in the radial-arm maze repeated acquisition procedure. The PfTx-induced impairment was seen at the beginning of the session and the early learning deficit was persistent across 6 weeks of testing after a single administration of the toxin. Eventually, with enough practice, in each session, the PfTx-exposed rats did learn that session's problem as did control rats. This model has demonstrated the cause-and-effect relationship between exposure to a hydrophilic toxin produced by P. piscicida and learning impairment, and specifically that the ventral hippocampus was critically involved.

Characterization of the rRNA locus of Pfiesteria piscicida and development of standard and quantitative PCR-based detection assays targeted to the nontranscribed spacer

Pfiesteria piscicida is a heterotrophic dinoflagellate widely distributed along the middle Atlantic shore of the United States and associated with fish kills in the Neuse River (North Carolina) and the Chesapeake Bay (Maryland and Virginia). We constructed a genomic DNA library from clonally cultured P. piscicida and characterized the nontranscribed spacer (NTS), small subunit, internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1), 5.8S region, ITS2, and large subunit of the rRNA gene cluster. Based on the P. piscicida ribosomal DNA sequence, we developed a PCR-based detection assay that targets the NTS. The assay specificity was assessed by testing clonal P. piscicida and Pfiesteria shumwayae, 35 additional dinoflagellate species, and algal prey (Rhodomonas sp.). Only P. piscicida and nine presumptive P. piscicida isolates tested positive. All PCR-positive products yielded identical sequences for P. piscicida, suggesting that the PCR-based assay is species specific. The assay can detect a single P. piscicida zoospore in 1 ml of water, 10 resting cysts in 1 g of sediment, or 10 fg of P. piscicida DNA in 1 micro g of heterologous DNA. An internal standard for the PCR assay was constructed to identify potential false-negative results in testing of environmental sediment and water samples and as a competitor for the development of a quantitative competitive PCR assay format. The specificities of both qualitative and quantitative PCR assay formats were validated with >200 environmental samples, and the assays provide simple, rapid, and accurate methods for the assessment of P. piscicida in water and sediments.

Are Pfiesteria species toxicogenic? Evidence against production of ichthyotoxins by Pfiesteria shumwayae

The estuarine genus Pfiesteria has received considerable attention since it was first identified and proposed to be the causative agent of fish kills along the mid-Atlantic coast in 1992. The presumption has been that the mechanism of fish death is by release of one or more toxins by the dinoflagellate. In this report, we challenge the notion that Pfiesteria species produce ichthyotoxins. Specifically, we show that (i) simple centrifugation, with and without ultrasonication, is sufficient to "detoxify" water of actively fish-killing cultures of Pfiesteria shumwayae, (ii) organic extracts of lyophilized cultures are not toxic to fish, (iii) degenerate primers that amplify PKS genes from several polyketide-producing dinoflagellates failed to yield a product with P. shumwayae DNA or cDNA, and (iv) degenerate primers for NRPS genes failed to amplify any NRPS genes but (unexpectedly) yielded a band (among several) that corresponded to known or putative PKSs and fatty acid synthases. We conclude that P. shumwayae is able to kill fish by means other than releasing a toxin into bulk water. Alternative explanations of the effects attributed to Pfiesteria are suggested.

Human health effects of exposure to Pfiesteria piscicida: a review

Since its identification, the dinoflagellate Pfiesteria piscicida has been implicated in fish kills and fish disease in the southeastern United States. Adverse health effects have been reported in researchers working with the organism and in watermen following exposure to a fish kill in Maryland. A bioactive secretion is postulated as the cause of these effects but has not yet been isolated and chemically characterized. The biology and toxicology of this organism remain the topic of debate and research.

Specificity of cognitive impairment from Pfiesteria piscicida exposure in rats: attention and visual function versus behavioral plasticity

Pfiesteria piscicida is a toxic dinoflagellate that has caused massive fish kills in estuaries along the East Coast of the United States, and exposure of humans to toxic Pfiesteria has been associated with cognitive impairment. A visual signal detection task was used to determine the possible importance of attentional and visual processes in Pfiesteria effects on cognitive function. Adult female rats were trained to perform the signal detection task. After training, the rats were injected subcutaneously with fish culture water containing toxic Pfiesteria (35,600 or 106,800 cells of Pfiesteria/kg of rat body weight) or with (control) fish culture water containing no Pfiesteria. Effects of toxic Pfiesteria on maintenance of signal detection behavior were assessed for 2 weeks after treatment. Then, the signal-response contingencies were reversed. After the discrimination was reestablished on the reversed levers, the rats received a second dose of toxic Pfiesteria. The rats were again tested for 2 weeks, after which a second reversal was imposed. Pfiesteria did not affect behavior in the signal detection task during 2 weeks of prereversal testing after either exposure. However, a significant Pfiesteria-induced deficit emerged when the signal-response contingencies were reversed. These findings suggest that Pfiesteria-induced deficits emerge during periods of behavioral transition and not during performance of previously learned tasks.

Human health effects and Pfiesteria exposure: a synthesis of available clinical data

An association between human illness and exposure to Pfiesteria was first observed among laboratory personnel working with the microorganism. In 1997, in the setting of Pfiesteria activity on the Pocomoke River in Maryland, difficulties with learning and memory were epidemiologically associated with high-level exposure to waterways in which the organism was known to be present. In the Maryland studies, neurocognitive function of affected persons returned to within normal ranges within a period of 3-6 months. Persons with the most severe neurocognitive deficits were significantly more likely to have skin lesions characterized on biopsy by evidence of a toxic/allergic inflammatory reaction. Acute high-level exposures to waterways where Pfiesteria has been identified have been linked with eye and respiratory irritation, headache, and gastrointestinal complaints. Recent data, collected using molecular techniques, suggest that the organism is present in multiple locations in the Chesapeake Bay environment; available data are insufficient to comment on the possible cumulative health impact of chronic low-level environmental exposure to Pfiesteria.