Gas antisolvent crystallization of organic salts from aqueous solutions

Fluoropolymer Membranes for Membrane Distillation and Membrane Crystallization

Fluoropolymer membranes are applied in membrane operations such as membrane distillation and membrane crystallization where hydrophobic porous membranes act as a physical barrier separating two phases. Due to their hydrophobic nature, only gaseous molecules are allowed to pass through the membrane and are collected on the permeate side, while the aqueous solution cannot penetrate. However, these two processes suffer problems such as membrane wetting, fouling or scaling. Membrane wetting is a common and undesired phenomenon, which is caused by the loss of hydrophobicity of the porous membrane employed. This greatly affects the mass transfer efficiency and separation efficiency. Simultaneously, membrane fouling occurs, along with membrane wetting and scaling, which greatly reduces the lifespan of the membranes. Therefore, strategies to improve the hydrophobicity of membranes have been widely investigated by researchers. In this direction, hydrophobic fluoropolymer membrane materials are employed more and more for membrane distillation and membrane crystallization thanks to their high chemical and thermal resistance. This paper summarizes different preparation methods of these fluoropolymer membrane, such as non-solvent-induced phase separation (NIPS), thermally-induced phase separation (TIPS), vapor-induced phase separation (VIPS), etc. Hydrophobic modification methods, including surface coating, surface grafting and blending, etc., are also introduced. Moreover, the research advances on the application of less toxic solvents for preparing these membranes are herein reviewed. This review aims to provide guidance to researchers for their future membrane development in membrane distillation and membrane crystallization, using fluoropolymer materials.

Ampicillin Nanoparticles Production via Supercritical CO2 Gas Antisolvent Process

The micronization of ampicillin via supercritical gas antisolvent (GAS) process was studied. The particle size distribution was significantly controlled with effective GAS variables such as initial solute concentration, temperature, pressure, and antisolvent addition rate. The effect of each variable in three levels was investigated. The precipitated particles were analyzed with scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and Zetasizer Nano ZS. The results indicated that decreasing the temperature and initial solute concentration while increasing the antisolvent rate and pressure led to a decrease in ampicillin particle size. The mean particle size of ampicillin was obtained in the range of 220-430 nm by varying the GAS effective variables. The purity of GAS-synthesized ampicillin nanoparticles was analyzed in contrast to unprocessed ampicillin by FTIR and HPLC. The results indicated that the structure of the ampicillin nanoparticles remained unchanged during the GAS process.

Antioxidant and Antibacterial Assays onPolygonum minusExtracts: Different Extraction Methods

The effect of solvent type and extraction method was investigated to study the antioxidant and antibacterial activity ofPolygonum minus. Two extraction methods were used: a solvent extraction using Soxhlet apparatus and supercritical fluid extraction (SFE). The antioxidant capacity was evaluated using the ferric reducing/antioxidant power (FRAP) assay and the free radical-scavenging capacity of 2,2-diphenyl-1-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) assay. The highest polyphenol content was obtained from the medium polarity methanol extract of the leaf portion (645.60 ± 166.68 gallic acid equivalents/100 g (GAEs/100 g)). It also showed the highest antioxidant power for FRAP and DPPH radical inhibition and exhibited the largest inhibition zone in antibacterial activity onBacillus subtilis(Gram+),Staphylococcus aureus(Gram+), andEscherichia coli(Gram−). The phase behavior and aldehyde profiles were further investigated using SFE with different cosolvents. The results indicated that a 50% ethanol-water cosolvent yielded the best aldehyde profiles in the presence of decanal, undecanal, and dodecanal.

Particle design of poorly water-soluble drug substances using supercritical fluid technologies

In order to improve the dissolution properties of poorly water-soluble drugs, some drugs were subjected to micronization or prepared as composite particles using supercritical fluid (SCF) technology with carbon dioxide (CO(2)). Solubility in CO(2) is the key when using this method. Solubility affects the supersaturation of the materials in the solvent as well as the mass transfer of that solvent, which are both critical to the micronization of the materials and the formation of the composite particles. Some useful techniques that can be used to avoid the problems posed by the characteristics of the drug itself are combining SC-CO(2) with other technologies, such as the formation of coacervates or emulsions, and other equipment types, such as milling or ultrasound fields. Another advantage of SCF technology is that it is considered to be green chemistry. SC-CO(2) can improve the solubility of poorly water-soluble drug substances using few or no organic solvents and with little or no heating.

Solid-state chemistry and particle engineering with supercritical fluids in pharmaceutics

The present commentary aims to review the modern and innovative strategies in particle engineering by the supercritical fluid technologies and it is principally concerned with the aspects of solid-state chemistry. Supercritical fluids based processes for particle production have been proved suitable for controlling solid-state, morphology and particle size of pharmaceuticals, in some cases on an industrial scale. Supercritical fluids should be considered in a prominent position in the development processes of drug products for the 21st century. In this respect, this innovative technology will help in meeting the more and more stringent requirements of regulatory authorities in terms of solid-state characterisation and purity, and environmental acceptability.

Supercritical carbon dioxide treatment as a method for polymorph preparation of deoxycholic acid

A new polymorph of deoxycholic acid (DCA) was formed by using a supercritical carbon dioxide treatment. Deoxycholic acid crystals were stored in a pressure vessel purged with carbon dioxide at 12MPa, 60 degrees C for definite intervals. After storage for 1h in supercritical carbon dioxide (SC-CO2), new X-ray diffraction (XRD) peaks, not found in the bulk DCA crystal, were observed at 2theta = 7.4 degrees, 9.7 degrees and 14.0 degrees. The intensities of the new diffraction peaks increased with an increase in storage time, whereas the intensities of the diffraction peaks due to bulk DCA crystal decreased. On the DSC curves, the crystals obtained showed an exothermic peak at around 155 degrees C followed by the melting peak of bulk DCA crystal at 175 degrees C. By the temperature-controlled powder XRD measurement, the crystals obtained were found to be a metastable form of DCA. The polymorphs of DCA have not been reported; therefore, the SC-CO2 treatment would be a peculiar method to obtain a DCA polymorph.