Axillary temperature in transitional newborn infants before and after tub bath

Effectiveness of different bathing methods on physiological indexes and behavioral status of preterm infants: a systematic review and meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Bath is an external stimulus for preterm infants. Currently, three methods are used for preterm infants to bath. It is important to choose the best way for them. The objective of this meta-analysis is to evaluate the effectiveness of different bath methods on physiological indexes and behavioral status of preterm infants.

METHODS

This systematic review was conducted according to the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses [PRISMA] guidelines and was registered in PROSPERO(CRD42022377657). PubMed, Embase, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, CINAHL, Sino Med, China National Knowledge Internet (CNKI) and Wan-Fang database were systematically searched for randomized controlled trials on the effects of different bath methods for preterm infants. The retrieval time was from the establishment of the database to February 2023. According to the inclusion and exclusion criteria, the literature was screened, quality evaluated and the data was extracted. Reman Version 5.4 was used for meta-analysis and Stata 16.0 software for publication bias Egger's test.

RESULTS

A total of 11 RCTs with 828 preterm infants were included. The results of meta-analysis showed that the body temperature and oxygen saturation of preterm infants in the sponge bath group were lower than those in conventional tub bath group (SMD = -0.34; 95%CI -0.56 to -0.12; I2 = 0; p < 0.01), (MD = -0.39; 95%CI -0.76 to -0.02; I2 = 39%; p = 0.04), while the heart rates were higher than those in conventional tub bath group(MD = 5.90; 95%CI 0.44 to 11.35; I2 = 61%; p = 0.03). Preterm infant's body temperature and blood oxygen saturation of in swaddle bath group were higher than those in conventional tub bath group (MD = 0.18; 95%CI 0.05 to 0.30; I2 = 88%; p < 0.01), (MD = 1.11; 95%CI 0.07 to 2.16; I2 = 86%; p = 0.04), respiratory rates were more stable compared with infants in conventional tub bath group (MD = -2.73; 95%CI -3.43 to -2.03; I2 = 0; p < 0.01). The crying duration, stress and pain scores of preterm infants in swaddle bath group were lower than those in conventional tub bath group (SMD = -1.64; 95CI -2.47 to -0.82; I2 = 91%; p < 0.01), (SMD = -2.34; 95%CI -2.78 to -1.91; I2 = 0; p < 0.01), (SMD = -1.01; 95%CI -1.40 to -0.62; I2 = 49%; p < 0.01). Egger's test showed no publication bias in body temperature, respiratory rate, oxygen saturation, and crying duration.

CONCLUSIONS

Swaddle bath is the best bathing method than conventional tub bath and sponge bath in maintaining the stability of preterm infant's body temperature, blood oxygen saturation and respiratory rate. In addition, swaddle bath also plays a role in reducing cry duration, stress scores, and pain levels of preterm infant compared with conventional tub bath and sponge bath. However, due to the important heterogeneity in some outcomes, future studies with larger sample size and more appropriately design are needed to conduct before recommendation.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

Prospero CRD42022377657.

The effect of delaying first bathing on skin barrier function in late preterm infants: A study protocol for multi-centre, single-blind RCT

AIMS

The study aims to examine the effect of delaying first bathing on skin barrier function, body temperature, and neonatal comfort of late preterm infants.

DESIGN

This study is a multi-centre, single-blind, prospective randomized controlled trial.

METHODS

We attempt to report this randomized controlled trial to comply with the SPIRIT. The study population will consist of 80 late preterm infants born at three centres (hospitals) in Turkey. The study, between September 2020-September 2021 will be held in the Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. The participants will be randomly divided into two groups, each with different bathing times. The first group (N = 40) will be bathed between 24-48 hr after birth and the second group (N = 40) will be bathed between 48-72 hr after birth. Each group's intervention will be performed by a blinded researcher. The infants' transepidermal water loss, body temperature, and comfort level will be measured before the bath and again at three times after the bath. The measurements will be taken by a blinded researcher and blinded nurse.

DISCUSSION

The benefits of infant bathing are known. However, the effect of delaying first bathing of late preterm infants on skin barrier function is unknown. At the same time, the effect of delaying bathing on maintaining body temperature and neonatal comfort is unknown.

IMPACT

This study is expected to provide a piece of credible evidence of the delay of first bathing and benefit of neonatal care in this population. It is thought that postponing bathing time of late preterm infants to 48-72 hr after birth will lead to a protective effect on skin barrier and temperature. It will be performed in clinical practice if it can effectively improve transepidermal water loss and heat loss.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

It was registered at ClinicalTrials.gov in January 2020 (NCT04231799).

The effect of tub bathing and sponge bathing on neonatal comfort and physiological parameters in late preterm infants: A randomized controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Increasing comfort and physiological stabilization in preterm infants during neonatal care improves their neurophysiological development. Bathing procedures that support this development and will not expose the newborn to stress should be preferred.

OBJECTIVES

Our study aimed to examine the effectiveness of tub bathing and sponge bathing methods on the physiological parameters (i.e., heart rate, respiration rate, oxygen saturation, body temperature) and comfort of late preterm infants.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled trial. Study is registered at ClinicalTrials.gov NCT03796312.

SETTINGS

The trial was conducted in a neonatal intensive care unit of a university hospital in Antalya, Turkey.

METHODS

Late preterm infants (gestational age between 34 0/7 weeks and 36 6/7 weeks) were randomly assigned by a computer program to either intervention (tub bath) or control group (sponge bath). The physiological parameters and comfort of preterm infants in both groups were evaluated at 10 min before the bath. Infant comfort was reevaluated 10 min after the procedure, while physiological parameters were reevaluated after 15 and 30 min. Preterm infant heart rate, oxygen saturation, respiratory rate, body temperature and comfort behaviors were assessed by two independent evaluators who were blinded to the purpose of the study at different phases across the two bathing protocols. Written consent was obtained from the university and hospital ethics committee where the research was performed, and from the families of the infants participating in the study. SPSS 20.0 and SAS 9.3 were used for data analysis. Data was analyzed by percentage distribution, mean, repeated analysis, variance analysis, Bonferroni analysis as a further analysis and t-test in dependent groups.

RESULTS

Approximately 120 preterm infants completed the protocol (60 in each group). The two groups did not differ in gestational age, sex, weight or other demographic variables (p > 0.05). Tub bathing was more effective in reducing preterm infants' comfort scores (9.47 ± 2.55 vs. 14.85 ± 4.77, p < 0.001) and heart rate than sponge bathing (132.88 ± 12.00 vs. 144.00 ± 17.74, p < 0.05). Preterm infants in the tub bathing group maintained their body temperature better than those in the sponge bathing group (36.75 ± 0.26 vs. 36.59 ± 0.25, p < 0.05). There was no difference in oxygen saturation (98.35 ± 0.88 vs. 97.85 ± 1.36, p = 0.291) or respiratory rate (45.57 ± 5.39 vs. 47.20 ± 5.41, p = 0.472) between the tub and sponge bathing groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Tub bathing is a safer, more pleasurable/comfortable bathing option and is the recommended method for bathing healthy, late preterm infants.

Effects of Underrunning Water Bathing and Immersion Tub Bathing on Vital Signs of Newborn Infants: A Comparative Analysis

BACKGROUND

Newborn infants are susceptible to hypothermia during bathing due to environmental conditions.

PURPOSE

This study examined the effects of 2 common newborn bathing methods used in Turkey, underrunning water bathing (URWB) and immersion tub bathing (ITB), on infant heart rate (HR), oxygen saturation, and body temperature.

METHODS

In this randomized controlled study, 44 newborns were allocated to the ITB group and 36 newborns to the URWB group. Body temperature, HR, and oxygen saturation values of the newborns were compared between groups every hour during 4 hours before the bath to evaluate infants' vital sign stability. All measurements were compared at 10, 20, 40, and 60 minutes after the bath too.

RESULTS

No statistically significant differences were found in vital signs performed prior to bathing as compared with after bathing; however, changes in oxygen saturation at 20 minutes after the bath were significantly higher in the ITB group (P < .05).

CONCLUSION

Although both bathing methods decreased overall infant body temperature, ITB positively affected newborn oxygen saturation and HR to a greater degree compared with URWB.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE

ITB facilitated maintenance of oxygen saturation and HR during the bath and should be preferred for newborn infants to feel more relaxed.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

These findings indicate a need for additional studies with larger sample sizes to further evaluate the effect of different bathing methods on newborn comfort.

EFEITO DE DUAS TÉCNICAS DE BANHO DE IMERSÃO NA TEMPERATURA AXILAR DE RECÉM-NASCIDOS PRÉ-TERMOS: ESTUDO PILOTO

RESUMO Objetivo: comparar as temperaturas axilares pós-banho de imersão de recém-nascidos pré-termos envoltos e não em lençol. Método: estudo piloto, do tipo ensaio clínico cruzado; participaram 15 neonatos pré-termos, clinicamente estáveis internados na unidade neonatal, que receberam os dois tipos de banho em intervalo, entre 24 e 48 horas, seguindo uma lista de randomização da sequência dos banhos. O teste t-Student pareado e o valor p ≤ 0,05 e IC 95% foram adotados. Resultados: as temperaturas do ambiente pré-banhos e da água do banho e axilar apresentaram homogeneidade entre os grupos. As médias da temperatura axilar dos recém-nascidos no 10°e 20° minutos após os banhos foram similares. Independente da técnica, os recém-nascidos apresentaram leve hipotermia pós-banho. Conclusão: estudos sobre o efeito do banho de imersão nos parâmetros fisiológicos e comportamentais são necessários para avaliar a segurança do procedimento.

Biobehavioral Responses of Preterm Infants to Conventional and Swaddled Tub Baths: A Randomized Crossover Trial

Bathing is a routine care procedure that exposes preterm infants to prolonged handling, which could cause stress and potentially disrupt infants' biobehavioral responses. The aim of this double-blind randomized crossover trial was to compare the preterm infant's body temperature, heart rate (HR), peripheral capillary oxygen saturation (SpO2), salivary cortisol levels, and sleep-wake states during and after swaddled and conventional tub baths. Forty-three infants born at 32 to 36 weeks postmenstrual age, weighing 2225 g or less, were enrolled in the study. Infants were videotaped before and after each type of baths. The time interval between baths ranged from 24 to 72 hours to allow a washout period. Physiological, hormonal, and behavioral responses were collected at baseline and during recovery from baths. No significant differences in the mean body temperature, HR, SpO2, salivary cortisol levels, and sleep-wake states between the bath types were observed in the baseline or recovery responses during the first 20 minutes after bath. Regardless of bath type, salivary cortisol levels showed a nonstatistical significant increase.

Bathing and Beyond: Current Bathing Controversies for Newborn Infants

BACKGROUND

Bathing the newborn infant is controversial, ranging from how and when to give the newborn their first bath, whether to bathe newborns at all in the initial days of life, and how to approach bathing the hospitalized premature and full-term infant in the neonatal intensive care unit (NICU).

PURPOSE

To review relevant literature about bathing newborn infants, as well as examine the controversies about bathing NICU patients including the use of daily chlorhexidine gluconate (CHG) baths.

FINDINGS

Despite studies showing that temperature can be maintained when the first bath was at 1 hour after delivery, there are benefits from delaying the bath including improved breastfeeding. Tub or immersion bathing improves temperature, and is less stressful. It is not necessary to bathe infants every day, and premature infants can be bathed as little as every 4 days without an increase in skin colonization. No differences have been reported in skin parameters such as pH, transepidermal water loss, and stratum corneum hydration whether the first and subsequent baths are given using water alone or water and a mild baby cleanser. Concerns about systemic absorption suggests caution about widespread practice of daily CHG bathing in the NICU until it is known whether CHG crosses the blood-brain barrier, particularly in premature infants.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND RESEARCH

Research regarding bathing practices for NICU patients should be evidence-based whenever possible, such as the benefits of immersion bathing. More evidence about the risks and benefits of daily CHG bathing is needed before this practice is widely disseminated.

Recommendations from a European Roundtable Meeting on Best Practice Healthy Infant Skin Care

BACKGROUND

European roundtable meeting recommendations on bathing and cleansing of infants were published in 2009; a second meeting was held to update and expand these recommendations in light of new evidence and the continued need to address uncertainty surrounding this aspect of routine care.

METHODS

The previous roundtable recommendations concerning infant cleansing, bathing, and use of liquid cleansers were critically reviewed and updated and the quality of evidence was evaluated using the Grading of Recommendation Assessment, Development and Evaluation system. New recommendations were developed to provide guidance on diaper care and the use of emollients. A series of recommendations was formulated to characterize the attributes of ideal liquid cleansers, wipes, and emollients.

RESULTS

Newborn bathing can be performed without harming the infant, provided basic safety procedures are followed. Water alone or appropriately designed liquid cleansers can be used during bathing without impairing the skin maturation process. The diaper area should be kept clean and dry; from birth, the diaper area may be gently cleansed with cotton balls/squares and water or by using appropriately designed wipes. Appropriately formulated emollients can be used to maintain and enhance skin barrier function. Appropriately formulated baby oils can be applied for physiologic (transitory) skin dryness and in small quantities to the bath. Baby products that are left on should be formulated to buffer and maintain babies' skin surface at approximately pH 5.5, and the formulations and their constituent ingredients should have undergone an extensive program of safety testing. Formulations should be effectively preserved; products containing harsh surfactants, such as sodium lauryl sulfate, should be avoided.

CONCLUSION

Health care professionals can use these recommendations as the basis of their advice to parents.

Social regulation of the stress response in the transitional newborn: a pilot study

The purpose of the study was to explore relationships between caregiver holding and feeding behaviors and the transitional newborn infant's cortisol response. Behaviors of 46 mothers, fathers, and their term transitional newborn infants were measured with the Index of Mother-Infant Separation (IMIS). Repeated measures of infant salivary cortisol were used to calculate area under the curve. A higher percentage of observations in which mother was holding infant was related to lower infant total cortisol during the first 6 hours after birth (r = -.24, p = .05, one-tailed).

Children and newborn skin care and prevention

Neonatal skin suffers a progressive adaptation to the extrauterine environment and special care is needed during this period. This skin is very sensitive, thin and fragile. Immaturity of the epidermal barrier reduces the defense against the excessive proliferation of microbes and makes the skin more vulnerable to trauma and percutaneous drug toxicity. Because of the peculiar characteristics of newborn, infant and children's skin, the use of cosmetic products designed for hygiene and protection requires caution. In order to preserve the integrity of neonatal and child's skin, this article reviewed basic preventive care practices in relation to hygiene, bathing, cleansing agents, topical products and their percutaneous toxicity.

Efeitos do banho logo após o nascimento sobre as adaptações térmica e cardiorrespiratória do recém-nascido a termo

OBJETIVO: Determinar se o banho dado ao recém-nascido (RN) logo após o nascimento interfere na transição para a vida extrauterina, especialmente nas adaptações cardiorrespiratória e na termorregulação. MÉTODOS: Estudo retrospectivo realizado por meio de levantamento de prontuários de RN admitidos em maternidade de São Paulo, entre janeiro e março de 2006. Foram incluídos RN com boletim de Apgar >8 no quinto minuto de vida: peso de nascimento >2500g; idade gestacional >37 semanas e sem malformações congênitas, divididos em dois grupos: 'banho', banhados na sala de parto, e 'controle', banhados após a terceira hora de vida. Na admissão do RN na unidade neonatal, as seguintes variáveis foram analisadas: temperatura axilar, frequência cardíaca e respiratória, pressão arterial média e saturação de oxigênio. Analisou-se também o tipo de parto, o tempo decorrido entre o parto e a admissão no berçário e a taxa de aleitamento na sala de parto. RESULTADOS: Incluíram-se 194 RN, 98 no grupo banho e 96 no grupo controle. Em ambos os grupos, a temperatura corpórea na admissão era similar (36,6±0,4 e 36,6±0,3ºC; p=0,68); frequência cardíaca (143±13 e 146±14 bpm; p=0,26) e respiratória (51±6 e 51±9 mov/min; p=0,90), pressão arterial média (44±6 e 47±9 mmHg; p=0,13) e saturação de oxigênio (98±2 e98±3%; p=0,99) foram semelhantes. A taxa de aleitamento materno (91 e 57%; p<0.001) e o tempo em sala de parto (95±21 e 79±29 minutos, p<0,001) foram significativamente maiores no grupo banho. CONCLUSÕES: Neste estudo retrospectivo, o banho na sala de parto em RN a termo e saudáveis não interferiu na adaptação cardiorrespiratória e na temperatura à admissão na unidade neonatal.

Tub Bathing Versus Traditional Sponge Bathing for the Newborn

OBJECTIVE

To compare selected effects of tub bathing versus traditional sponge bathing in healthy, term newborns and their mothers' ratings of pleasure and confidence with the bath.

DESIGN

Randomized controlled study.

SETTING

The maternity unit of an eastern Canadian hospital.

PARTICIPANTS

One hundred two mother-baby pairs were randomly assigned to an experimental tub bath or a sponge bath control group.

INTERVENTIONS

Fifty-one newborns were tub bathed and 51 sponge bathed according to the study protocols for their initial and one additional bath.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

(a) Newborn temperature stability was assessed by recording axillary temperatures pre- and postbath, (b) umbilical cord healing was identified by daily observations and infection control surveillance, (c) infant contentment was quantified by applying the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral Assessment Scale, and (d) maternal pleasure with the bath and confidence with bathing at discharge were self-rated on a 5-point scale.

RESULTS

Tub-bathed babies experienced significantly less temperature loss (t = 4.79, p = .00) and were significantly more content (t = -6.48, p = .00) than were those who were sponge bathed. No differences in cord healing scores were found. Mothers of tub bathed babies rated their pleasure with the bath significantly higher than did mothers of sponge bathed babies (t = 4.15, p = .00). No differences in maternal confidence were noted.

CONCLUSIONS

Tub bathing is a safe and pleasurable alternative to sponge bathing in healthy, term newborns.

The Effect of Bather and Location of First Bath on Maintaining Thermal Stability in Newborns

OBJECTIVE

To compare thermal stability during the first bath of newborns bathed by maternal-child nurses in a newborn nursery with thermal stability of newborns bathed by parents at the maternal bedside.

DESIGN

A randomized clinical controlled trial.

SETTING

A tertiary care hospital in western Canada.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants (N = 111) were full-term newborns born vaginally.

INTERVENTIONS

The experimental treatment was the parent bathing the newborn under nursing supervision at the bedside in the first few hours of birth; the standard treatment was a nurse bathing the newborn in an admission nursery.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The main outcome measure was newborn heat loss occurring from bathing as assessed by changes in aural temperatures, which were taken before, during, and following bathing.

RESULTS

There was no difference in temperature change between newborns bathed by a nurse and those bathed by a parent (F = 0.595, df = 1, p = .442). A return to normal thermal ranges takes approximately an hour.

CONCLUSION

Heat loss experienced by newborns during bathing is significant and is not associated with who bathes the newborn or where the bath takes place.

Effects of sponge bathing on vagal tone and behavioural responses in premature infants

The purpose of this study was to evaluate the effects of sponge bathing on physiological (vagal tone, heart rate, heart period, oxygen saturation) and behavioural responses in newly born premature infants in the intensive care unit of a university hospital in South Korea. A convenience sample was taken of 40 infants who were between 27 and 36 weeks gestational age at birth and free of congenital defects. The infants' physiological parameters were recorded 10 min before, during and after bathing. To determine behavioural status, tools were modified from the instruments used in a previous study by Scafidi et al. (1990). Analysis of the results showed that the premature infants reacted to sponge bathing with decreases in vagal tone and heart period and increases in heart rate. Oxygen saturation did not demonstrate any remarkable alteration during bathing. Also, there were no significant differences in behavioural signs, motor activity and behavioural distress. Results of this study indicated that nurses in a neonatal intensive care unit should decide according to a premature infant's physiological state whether or not to give a sponge bath.