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List R, Gonzalez-Lopez L, Ashfaq A, Zaouak A, Driscoll M, Al-Sheikhly M. On the Mechanism of the Ionizing Radiation-Induced Degradation and Recycling of Cellulose. Polymers (Basel) 2023; 15:4483. [PMID: 38231912 PMCID: PMC10708459 DOI: 10.3390/polym15234483] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2023] [Revised: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 01/19/2024] Open
Abstract
The use of ionizing radiation offers a boundless range of applications for polymer scientists, from inducing crosslinking and/or degradation to grafting a wide variety of monomers onto polymeric chains. This review in particular aims to introduce the field of ionizing radiation as it relates to the degradation and recycling of cellulose and its derivatives. The review discusses the main mechanisms of the radiolytic sessions of the cellulose molecules in the presence and absence of water. During the radiolysis of cellulose, in the absence of water, the primary and secondary electrons from the electron beam, and the photoelectric, Compton effect electrons from gamma radiolysis attack the glycosidic bonds (C-O-C) on the backbone of the cellulose chains. This radiation-induced session results in the formation of alkoxyl radicals and C-centered radicals. In the presence of water, the radiolytically produced hydroxyl radicals (●OH) will abstract hydrogen atoms, leading to the formation of C-centered radicals, which undergo various reactions leading to the backbone session of the cellulose. Based on the structures of the radiolytically produced free radicals in presence and absence of water, covalent grafting of vinyl monomers on the cellulose backbone is inconceivable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard List
- Department of Chemical Engineering, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
- UV/EB Technology Center, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Lorelis Gonzalez-Lopez
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Aiysha Ashfaq
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
| | - Amira Zaouak
- Research Laboratory on Energy and Matter for Nuclear Science Development, National Center for Nuclear Science and Technology, Sidi-Thabet 2020, Tunisia;
| | - Mark Driscoll
- UV/EB Technology Center, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
- Department of Chemistry, State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry, Syracuse, NY 13210, USA
| | - Mohamad Al-Sheikhly
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Maryland, College Park, MD 20742, USA
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Salem KS, Kasera NK, Rahman MA, Jameel H, Habibi Y, Eichhorn SJ, French AD, Pal L, Lucia LA. Comparison and assessment of methods for cellulose crystallinity determination. Chem Soc Rev 2023; 52:6417-6446. [PMID: 37591800 DOI: 10.1039/d2cs00569g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/19/2023]
Abstract
The degree of crystallinity in cellulose significantly affects the physical, mechanical, and chemical properties of cellulosic materials, their processing, and their final application. Measuring the crystalline structures of cellulose is a challenging task due to inadequate consistency among the variety of analytical techniques available and the lack of absolute crystalline and amorphous standards. Our article reviews the primary methods for estimating the crystallinity of cellulose, namely, X-ray diffraction (XRD), nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), Raman and Fourier-transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, sum-frequency generation vibrational spectroscopy (SFG), as well as differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and evolving biochemical methods using cellulose binding molecules (CBMs). The techniques are compared to better interrogate not only the requirements of each method, but also their differences, synergies, and limitations. The article highlights fundamental principles to guide the general community to initiate studies of the crystallinity of cellulosic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Khandoker Samaher Salem
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh.
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
| | - Nitesh Kumar Kasera
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh.
- Department of Biological and Agricultural Engineering, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA
| | - Md Ashiqur Rahman
- Department of Applied Chemistry and Chemical Engineering, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh.
- National Institute of Textile Engineering and Research, University of Dhaka, Dhaka-1000, Bangladesh
| | - Hasan Jameel
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
| | - Youssef Habibi
- Sustainable Materials Research Center (SUSMAT-RC), University Mohamed VI Polytechnic (UM6P), Lot 660, Hay Moulay Rachid, Benguerir, 43150, Morocco
| | - Stephen J Eichhorn
- Bristol Composites Institute, School of Civil, Aerospace, and Mechanical Engineering, University of Bristol, Bristol, BS8 1TR, UK
| | - Alfred D French
- United States Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service, Southern Regional Research Center USDA ARS SRRC, New Orleans, LA 70124, USA
| | - Lokendra Pal
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
| | - Lucian A Lucia
- Department of Forest Biomaterials, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC, USA.
- Department of Chemistry, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, CD 27695-8204, USA
- State Key Laboratory of Biobased Materials & Green Papermaking, Qilu University of Technology/Shandong Academy of Sciences, Jinan, 250353, P. R. China
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3
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Solid State NMR a Powerful Technique for Investigating Sustainable/Renewable Cellulose-Based Materials. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 14:polym14051049. [PMID: 35267872 PMCID: PMC8914817 DOI: 10.3390/polym14051049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 03/02/2022] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Solid state nuclear magnetic resonance (ssNMR) is a powerful and attractive characterization method for obtaining insights into the chemical structure and dynamics of a wide range of materials. Current interest in cellulose-based materials, as sustainable and renewable natural polymer products, requires deep investigation and analysis of the chemical structure, molecular packing, end chain motion, functional modification, and solvent–matrix interactions, which strongly dictate the final product properties and tailor their end applications. In comparison to other spectroscopic techniques, on an atomic level, ssNMR is considered more advanced, especially in the structural analysis of cellulose-based materials; however, due to a dearth in the availability of a broad range of pulse sequences, and time consuming experiments, its capabilities are underestimated. This critical review article presents the comprehensive and up-to-date work done using ssNMR, including the most advanced NMR strategies used to overcome and resolve the structural difficulties present in different types of cellulose-based materials.
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Addison B, Stengel D, Bharadwaj VS, Happs RM, Doeppke C, Wang T, Bomble YJ, Holland GP, Harman-Ware AE. Selective One-Dimensional 13C- 13C Spin-Diffusion Solid-State Nuclear Magnetic Resonance Methods to Probe Spatial Arrangements in Biopolymers Including Plant Cell Walls, Peptides, and Spider Silk. J Phys Chem B 2020; 124:9870-9883. [PMID: 33091304 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jpcb.0c07759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Two-dimensional (2D) and 3D through-space 13C-13C homonuclear spin-diffusion techniques are powerful solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) tools for extracting structural information from 13C-enriched biomolecules, but necessarily long acquisition times restrict their applications. In this work, we explore the broad utility and underutilized power of a chemical shift-selective one-dimensional (1D) version of a 2D 13C-13C spin-diffusion solid-state NMR technique. The method, which is called 1D dipolar-assisted rotational resonance (DARR) difference, is applied to a variety of biomaterials including lignocellulosic plant cell walls, microcrystalline peptide fMLF, and black widow dragline spider silk. 1D 13C-13C spin-diffusion methods described here apply in select cases in which the 1D 13C solid-state NMR spectrum displays chemical shift-resolved moieties. This is analogous to the selective 1D nuclear Overhauser effect spectroscopy (NOESY) experiment utilized in liquid-state NMR as a faster (1D instead of 2D) and often less ambiguous (direct sampling of the time domain data, coupled with increased signal averaging) alternative to 2D NOESY. Selective 1D 13C-13C spin-diffusion methods are more time-efficient than their 2D counterparts such as proton-driven spin diffusion (PDSD) and dipolar-assisted rotational resonance. The additional time gained enables measurements of 13C-13C spin-diffusion buildup curves and extraction of spin-diffusion time constants TSD, yielding detailed structural information. Specifically, selective 1D DARR difference buildup curves applied to 13C-enriched hybrid poplar woody stems confirm strong spatial interaction between lignin and acetylated xylan polymers within poplar plant secondary cell walls, and an interpolymer distance of ∼0.45-0.5 nm was estimated. Additionally, Tyr/Gly long-range correlations were observed on isotopically enriched black widow spider dragline silks.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bennett Addison
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Dillan Stengel
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182-1030, United States
| | - Vivek S Bharadwaj
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Renee M Happs
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Crissa Doeppke
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Tuo Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, Louisiana 70803, United States
| | - Yannick J Bomble
- Biosciences Center, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
| | - Gregory P Holland
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, San Diego State University, San Diego, California 92182-1030, United States
| | - Anne E Harman-Ware
- Renewable Resources and Enabling Sciences Center, 15013 Denver West Parkway, Golden, Colorado 80401, United States
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5
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Furusato S, Takagaki A, Hayashi S, Miyazato A, Kikuchi R, Oyama ST. Mechanochemical Decomposition of Crystalline Cellulose in the Presence of Protonated Layered Niobium Molybdate Solid Acid Catalyst. CHEMSUSCHEM 2018; 11:888-896. [PMID: 29380543 DOI: 10.1002/cssc.201702305] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2017] [Revised: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Direct depolymerization of crystalline cellulose into water-soluble sugars by solvent-free ball milling was examined in the presence of a strongly acidic layered metal oxide, HNbMoO6 , resulting in full conversion with 72 % yield of water-soluble sugars. Measurements by 13 C cross-polarization magic angle spinning NMR spectroscopy and X-ray diffraction revealed that amorphization of cellulose occurred rapidly within 10 min. Scanning electron microscopy equipped with an energy dispersive X-ray indicated that the substrate and the catalyst were well mixed during milling. The time course of the product distribution showed that most of the resultant water-soluble sugars were produced not by successive degradation of oligosaccharides but by direct depolymerization of cellulose chains. The products included glucose, mannose, and cello-oligomers, as well as anhydrosugars. Addition of small amounts of polar solvents increased the sugar yield, whereas further addition of water decreased the selectivity to anhydrosugars. Calculations of the mechanical energy required for the ball-milling process showed that 0.02 % was utilized for the chemical transformation under the conditions examined in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shogo Furusato
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Atsushi Takagaki
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - Shigenobu Hayashi
- Research Institute for Material and Chemical Measurement, National Institute of Advanced Industrial Science and Technology (AIST), Central 5, 1-1-1 Higashi, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8565, Japan
| | - Akio Miyazato
- School of Materials Science, Japan Advanced Institute of Science and Technology (JAIST), 1-1 Asahidai, Nomi, Ishikawa, 923-1292, Japan
| | - Ryuji Kikuchi
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
| | - S Ted Oyama
- Department of Chemical System Engineering, School of Engineering, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo, 113-8656, Japan
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6
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Gelenter MD, Wang T, Liao SY, O'Neill H, Hong M. 2H- 13C correlation solid-state NMR for investigating dynamics and water accessibilities of proteins and carbohydrates. JOURNAL OF BIOMOLECULAR NMR 2017; 68:257-270. [PMID: 28674916 PMCID: PMC6908442 DOI: 10.1007/s10858-017-0124-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2017] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Site-specific determination of molecular motion and water accessibility by indirect detection of 2H NMR spectra has advantages over dipolar-coupling based techniques due to the large quadrupolar couplings and the ensuing high angular resolution. Recently, a Rotor Echo Short Pulse IRrAdiaTION mediated cross polarization (RESPIRATIONCP) technique was developed, which allowed efficient transfer of 2H magnetization to 13C at moderate 2H radiofrequency field strengths available on most commercial MAS probes. In this work, we investigate the 2H-13C magnetization transfer characteristics of one-bond perdeuterated CD n spin systems and two-bond H/D exchanged C-(O)-D and C-(N)-D spin systems in carbohydrates and proteins. Our results show that multi-bond, broadband 2H-13C polarization transfer can be achieved using 2H radiofrequency fields of ~50 kHz, relatively short contact times of 1.3-1.7 ms, and with sufficiently high sensitivity to enable 2D 2H-13C correlation experiments with undistorted 2H spectra in the indirect dimension. To demonstrate the utility of this 2H-13C technique for studying molecular motion, we show 2H-13C correlation spectra of perdeuterated bacterial cellulose, whose surface glucan chains exhibit a motionally averaged C6 2H quadrupolar coupling that indicates fast trans-gauche isomerization about the C5-C6 bond. In comparison, the interior chains in the microfibril core are fully immobilized. Application of the 2H-13C correlation experiment to H/D exchanged Arabidopsis primary cell walls show that the O-D quadrupolar spectra of the highest polysaccharide peaks can be fit to a two-component model, in which 74% of the spectral intensity, assigned to cellulose, has a near-rigid-limit coupling, while 26% of the intensity, assigned to matrix polysaccharides, has a weakened coupling of 50 kHz. The latter O-D quadrupolar order parameter of 0.22 is significantly smaller than previously reported C-D dipolar order parameters of 0.46-0.55 for pectins, suggesting that additional motions exist at the C-O bonds in the wall polysaccharides. 2H-13C polarization transfer profiles are also compared between statistically deuterated and H/D exchanged GB1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin D Gelenter
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Tuo Wang
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Shu-Yu Liao
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA
| | - Hugh O'Neill
- Center for Structural Molecular Biology, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN, 37831, USA
| | - Mei Hong
- Department of Chemistry, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, 02139, USA.
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7
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Jenczyk J, Jurga S. Complementary studies of NMR spin diffusion and atomic force microscopy – Structural characterization of diblock copolymers. POLYMER 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2016.07.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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8
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Mason HE, Begg JD, Maxwell RS, Kersting AB, Zavarin M. A novel solid-state NMR method for the investigation of trivalent lanthanide sorption on amorphous silica at low surface loadings. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE. PROCESSES & IMPACTS 2016; 18:802-809. [PMID: 27291345 DOI: 10.1039/c6em00082g] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Abstract
The modelling of radionuclide transport in the subsurface depends on a comprehensive understanding of their interactions with mineral surfaces. Spectroscopic techniques provide important insight into these processes directly, but at high concentrations are sometimes hindered by safety concerns and limited solubilities of many radionuclides, especially the actinides. Here we use Eu(iii) as a surrogate for trivalent actinide species, and study Eu(iii) sorption on the silica surface at pH 5 where sorption is fairly limited. We have applied a novel, surface selective solid-state nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) technique to provide information about Eu binding at the silica surface at estimated surface loadings ranging from 0.1 to 3 nmol m(-2) (<0.1% surface loading). The NMR results show that inner sphere Eu(iii) complexes are evenly distributed across the silica surface at all concentrations, but that at the highest surface loadings there are indications that precipitates may form. These results illustrate that this NMR technique may be applied in solubility-limited systems to differentiate between adsorption and precipitation to better understand the interactions of radionuclides at solid surfaces.
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Affiliation(s)
- H E Mason
- Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, CA 94550, USA.
| | - J D Begg
- Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, CA 94550, USA.
| | - R S Maxwell
- Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, CA 94550, USA.
| | - A B Kersting
- Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, CA 94550, USA.
| | - M Zavarin
- Glenn T. Seaborg Institute, Physical and Life Sciences Directorate, Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, 7000 East Ave., Livermore, CA 94550, USA.
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9
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Dupree R, Simmons TJ, Mortimer JC, Patel D, Iuga D, Brown SP, Dupree P. Probing the molecular architecture of Arabidopsis thaliana secondary cell walls using two- and three-dimensional (13)C solid state nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Biochemistry 2015; 54:2335-45. [PMID: 25739924 DOI: 10.1021/bi501552k] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
The plant secondary cell wall is a thickened polysaccharide and phenolic structure, providing mechanical strength to cells, particularly in woody tissues. It is the main feedstock for the developing bioenergy and green chemistry industries. Despite the role that molecular architecture (the arrangement of biopolymers relative to each other, and their conformations) plays in dictating biomass properties, such as recalcitrance to breakdown, it is poorly understood. Here, unprocessed dry (13)C-labeled stems from the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana were analyzed by a variety of (13)C solid state magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance methods, such as one-dimensional cross-polarization and direct polarization, two-dimensional refocused INADEQUATE, RFDR, PDSD, and three-dimensional DARR, demonstrating their viability for the study of native polymer arrangements in intact secondary cell walls. All carbon sites of the two main glucose environments in cellulose (previously assigned to microfibril surface and interior residues) are clearly resolved, as are carbon sites of the other major components of the secondary cell wall: xylan and lignin. The xylan carbon 4 chemical shift is markedly different from that reported previously for solution or primary cell wall xylan, indicating significant changes in the helical conformation in these dried stems. Furthermore, the shift span indicates that xylan adopts a wide range of conformations in this material, with very little in the 31 conformation typical of xylan in solution. Additionally, spatial connections of noncarbohydrate species were observed with both cellulose peaks conventionally assigned as "surface" and as "interior" cellulose environments, raising questions about the origin of these two cellulose signals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ray Dupree
- †Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Thomas J Simmons
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, U.K
| | - Jennifer C Mortimer
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, U.K
| | - Dharmesh Patel
- †Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K.,‡Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, U.K
| | - Dinu Iuga
- †Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Steven P Brown
- †Department of Physics, University of Warwick, Coventry CV4 7AL, U.K
| | - Paul Dupree
- ‡Department of Biochemistry, University of Cambridge, Tennis Court Road, Cambridge CB2 1QW, U.K
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Fortier-McGill B, Toader V, Reven L. 13C MAS NMR Study of Poly(methacrylic acid)–Polyether Complexes and Multilayers. Macromolecules 2014. [DOI: 10.1021/ma401673n] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Blythe Fortier-McGill
- Centre
for Self-Assembled
Chemical Structures (CSACS-CRMAA), Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Violeta Toader
- Centre
for Self-Assembled
Chemical Structures (CSACS-CRMAA), Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
| | - Linda Reven
- Centre
for Self-Assembled
Chemical Structures (CSACS-CRMAA), Department of Chemistry, McGill University, 801 Sherbrooke St. W., Montreal, QC H3A 0B8, Canada
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11
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Foston M. Advances in solid-state NMR of cellulose. Curr Opin Biotechnol 2014; 27:176-84. [PMID: 24590189 DOI: 10.1016/j.copbio.2014.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2013] [Revised: 01/31/2014] [Accepted: 02/03/2014] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy is a well-established analytical and enabling technology in biofuel research. Over the past few decades, lignocellulosic biomass and its conversion to supplement or displace non-renewable feedstocks has attracted increasing interest. The application of solid-state NMR spectroscopy has long been seen as an important tool in the study of cellulose and lignocellulose structure, biosynthesis, and deconstruction, especially considering the limited number of effective solvent systems and the significance of plant cell wall three-dimensional microstructure and component interaction to conversion yield and rate profiles. This article reviews common and recent applications of solid-state NMR spectroscopy methods that provide insight into the structural and dynamic processes of cellulose that control bulk properties and biofuel conversion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Foston
- Washington University in St. Louis, Department of Energy, Environmental & Chemical Engineering, One Brookings Drive, St. Louis, MO 63130, USA.
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12
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Lacerda PSS, Barros-Timmons AMMV, Freire CSR, Silvestre AJD, Neto CP. Nanostructured composites obtained by ATRP sleeving of bacterial cellulose nanofibers with acrylate polymers. Biomacromolecules 2013; 14:2063-73. [PMID: 23692287 DOI: 10.1021/bm400432b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Novel nanostructured composite materials based on bacterial cellulose membranes (BC) and acrylate polymers were prepared by in situ atom transfer radical polymerization (ATRP). BC membranes were functionalized with initiating sites, by reaction with 2-bromoisobutyryl bromide (BiBBr), followed by atom transfer radical polymerization of methyl methacrylate (MMA) and n-butyl acrylate (BA), catalyzed by copper(I) bromide and N,N,N',N″,N″-pentamethyldiethylenetriamine (PMDETA), using two distinct initiator amounts and monomer feeds. The living characteristic of the system was proven by the growth of PBA block from the BC-g-PMMA membrane. The BC nanofiber sleeving was clearly demonstrated by SEM imaging, and its extent can be tuned by controlling the amount of initiating sites and the monomer feed. The ensuing nanocomposites showed high hydrophobicity (contact angles with water up to 134°), good thermal stability (initial degradation temperature in the range 241-275 °C), and were more flexible that the unmodified BC membranes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula S S Lacerda
- CICECO and Chemistry Department, University of Aveiro , Campus de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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Thomas LH, Forsyth VT, Šturcová A, Kennedy CJ, May RP, Altaner CM, Apperley DC, Wess TJ, Jarvis MC. Structure of cellulose microfibrils in primary cell walls from collenchyma. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2013; 161:465-76. [PMID: 23175754 PMCID: PMC3532275 DOI: 10.1104/pp.112.206359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 172] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2012] [Accepted: 11/13/2012] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
In the primary walls of growing plant cells, the glucose polymer cellulose is assembled into long microfibrils a few nanometers in diameter. The rigidity and orientation of these microfibrils control cell expansion; therefore, cellulose synthesis is a key factor in the growth and morphogenesis of plants. Celery (Apium graveolens) collenchyma is a useful model system for the study of primary wall microfibril structure because its microfibrils are oriented with unusual uniformity, facilitating spectroscopic and diffraction experiments. Using a combination of x-ray and neutron scattering methods with vibrational and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, we show that celery collenchyma microfibrils were 2.9 to 3.0 nm in mean diameter, with a most probable structure containing 24 chains in cross section, arranged in eight hydrogen-bonded sheets of three chains, with extensive disorder in lateral packing, conformation, and hydrogen bonding. A similar 18-chain structure, and 24-chain structures of different shape, fitted the data less well. Conformational disorder was largely restricted to the surface chains, but disorder in chain packing was not. That is, in position and orientation, the surface chains conformed to the disordered lattice constituting the core of each microfibril. There was evidence that adjacent microfibrils were noncovalently aggregated together over part of their length, suggesting that the need to disrupt these aggregates might be a constraining factor in growth and in the hydrolysis of cellulose for biofuel production.
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14
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Mori T, Chikayama E, Tsuboi Y, Ishida N, Shisa N, Noritake Y, Moriya S, Kikuchi J. Exploring the conformational space of amorphous cellulose using NMR chemical shifts. Carbohydr Polym 2012; 90:1197-203. [PMID: 22939331 DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2012.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2012] [Revised: 06/06/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
(13)C-labeled amorphous cellulose and (13)C NMR chemical shifts by 2D (13)C-(13)C correlation spectroscopy were obtained in the regenerated solid-state from ionic liquids. On the basis of the assigned chemical shifts, combined with information from molecular dynamics and quantum chemistry computer simulations a twisted structure for amorphous cellulose is proposed exposing more hydrophilic surface than that of extended crystalline cellulose.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tetsuya Mori
- Biotechnology Laboratory, Toyota Central R&D Laboratories, Inc., 41-1, Nagakute 480-1192, Japan.
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Okushita K, Komatsu T, Chikayama E, Kikuchi J. Statistical approach for solid-state NMR spectra of cellulose derived from a series of variable parameters. Polym J 2012. [DOI: 10.1038/pj.2012.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
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Foston M, Katahira R, Gjersing E, Davis MF, Ragauskas AJ. Solid-state selective (13)C excitation and spin diffusion NMR to resolve spatial dimensions in plant cell walls. JOURNAL OF AGRICULTURAL AND FOOD CHEMISTRY 2012; 60:1419-1427. [PMID: 22295909 DOI: 10.1021/jf204853b] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
The average spatial dimensions between major biopolymers within the plant cell wall can be resolved using a solid-state NMR technique referred to as a (13)C cross-polarization (CP) SELDOM (selectively by destruction of magnetization) with a mixing time delay for spin diffusion. Selective excitation of specific aromatic lignin carbons indicates that lignin is in close proximity to hemicellulose followed by amorphous and finally crystalline cellulose. (13)C spin diffusion time constants (T(SD)) were extracted using a two-site spin diffusion theory developed for (13)C nuclei under magic angle spinning (MAS) conditions. These time constants were then used to calculate an average lower-limit spin diffusion length between chemical groups within the plant cell wall. The results on untreated (13)C enriched corn stover stem reveal that the lignin carbons are, on average, located at distances ∼0.7-2.0 nm from the carbons in hemicellulose and cellulose, whereas the pretreated material had larger separations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcus Foston
- BioEnergy Science Center, School of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Institute of Paper Science and Technology, Georgia Institute of Technology, 500 10th Street, Atlanta, Georgia 30332, USA
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Shi Z, Zang S, Jiang F, Huang L, Lu D, Ma Y, Yang G. In situ nano-assembly of bacterial cellulose–polyaniline composites. RSC Adv 2012. [DOI: 10.1039/c1ra00719j] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
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Rondeau-Mouro C, Bizot H, Bertrand D. Chemometric analyses of the 1H–13C cross-polarization build-up of celluloses NMR spectra: A novel approach for characterizing the cellulose crystallites. Carbohydr Polym 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.12.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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El-Khouly A, Kenawy E, Safaan A, Takahashi Y, Hafiz Y, Sonomoto K, Zendo T. Synthesis, characterization and antimicrobial activity of modified cellulose-graft-polyacrylonitrile with some aromatic aldehyde derivatives. Carbohydr Polym 2011. [DOI: 10.1016/j.carbpol.2010.07.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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Yin X, Yu C, Zhang X, Yang J, Lin Q, Wang J, Zhu Q. Comparison of succinylation methods for bacterial cellulose and adsorption capacities of bacterial cellulose derivatives for Cu2+ ion. Polym Bull (Berl) 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s00289-010-0388-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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El-Khouly AS, Takahashi Y, Takada A, Safaan AA, Kenawy E, Hafiz YA. Characterization and thermal stability of cellulose-graft-polyacryloniytrile prepared by using KMnO4/citric acid redox system. J Appl Polym Sci 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/app.31679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Taylor R, French AD, Gamble GR, Himmelsbach DS, Stipanovic RD, Thibodeaux DP, Wakelyn PJ, Dybowski C. 1H and 13C solid-state NMR of Gossypium barbadense (Pima) cotton. J Mol Struct 2008. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2007.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Castelvetro V, Geppi M, Giaiacopi S, Mollica G. Cotton Fibers Encapsulated with Homo- and Block Copolymers: Synthesis by the Atom Transfer Radical Polymerization Grafting-From Technique and Solid-State NMR Dynamic Investigations. Biomacromolecules 2006; 8:498-508. [PMID: 17291074 DOI: 10.1021/bm060602w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Cotton fibers were modified by surface-initiated atom transfer radical polymerization of ethyl acrylate (EA) followed by copolymerization with styrene. Either ethyl 2-bromopropionate as a sacrificial free initiator or Cu(II) as a deactivator was used to optimize the EA grafting yield and to preserve the livingness of the chain ends for the subsequent growth of a poly(styrene) (PSty) block from the poly(ethyl acrylate) (PEA) grafts. The polymer-encapsulated cotton fibers were analyzed by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscopy, differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), thermogravimetric analysis, and solid-state NMR (high-resolution 13C cross-polarization magic angle spinning, 1H spin-lattice relaxation times, and 1H free induction decay analysis NMR). The latter allowed the detection of the dynamic modifications associated with the presence of homo- and block copolymer grafts. In particular, the results of the DSC and NMR investigations suggest a heterogeneous morphology of the g-PEA-b-PSty grafted skin, which could be described as an inner layer of g-PEA sandwiched between the semicrystalline cellulose of the core fiber and the high glass transition temperature PSty of the covalently linked outer layer. Such morphology results in a reduced molecular mobility of the PEA chains.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valter Castelvetro
- Dipartimento di Chimica e Chimica Industriale, Università di Pisa, via Risorgimento 35, 56126 Pisa, Italy.
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Guhados G, Wan W, Hutter JL. Measurement of the elastic modulus of single bacterial cellulose fibers using atomic force microscopy. LANGMUIR : THE ACS JOURNAL OF SURFACES AND COLLOIDS 2005; 21:6642-6. [PMID: 15982078 DOI: 10.1021/la0504311] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
The ability of the atomic force microscope to measure forces with subnanonewton sensitivity at nanometer-scale lateral resolutions has led to its use in the mechanical characterization of nanomaterials. Recent studies have shown that the atomic force microscope can be used to measure the elastic moduli of suspended fibers by performing a nanoscale three-point bending test, in which the center of the fiber is deflected by a known force. We extend this technique by modeling the deflection measured at several points along a suspended fiber, allowing us to obtain more accurate data, as well as to justify the mechanical model used. As a demonstration, we have measured a value of 78 +/- 17 GPa for Young's modulus of bacterial cellulose fibers with diameters ranging from 35 to 90 nm. This value is considerably higher than previous estimates, obtained by less direct means, of the mechanical strength of individual cellulose fibers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ganesh Guhados
- Department of Chemical and Biochemical Engineering, The University of Western Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada.
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