Particle characterization by AC-electrokinetic phenomena 3. New developments in electrorotational light scattering (ERLS)

A polarization model overcoming the geometric restrictions of the laplace solution for spheroidal cells: obtaining new equations for field-induced forces and transmembrane potential

We present a new model for a variety of electric polarization effects on oblate and prolate homogeneous and single-shell spheroids. For homogeneous spheroids the model is identical to the Laplace model. For single-shell spheres of cell-like geometry the calculated difference of the induced dipole moments is in the thousandths range. To solve Laplace's equation for nonspherical single-shell objects it is necessary to assume a confocal shell, which results in different cell membrane properties in the pole and equator regions, respectively. Our alternative model addresses this drawback. It assumes that the disturbance of the external field due to polarization may project into the medium to a characteristic distance, the influential radius. This parameter is related to the axis ratio of the spheroid over the depolarizing factors and allows us to determine the geometry for a finite resistor-capacitor model. From this model the potential at the spheroid's surface is obtained and, consequently, the local field inside a homogeneous spheroid is determined. In the single-shell case, this is the effective local field of an equivalent homogeneous spheroid. Finally, integration over the volume yields the frequency-dependent induced dipole moment. The resistor-capacitor approach allowed us to find simple equations for the critical and characteristic frequencies, force plateaus and peak heights of deformation, dielectrophoresis and electrorotation for homogeneous and single-shell spheroids, and a more generalized equation for the induced transmembrane potential of spheroidal cells.

Non-invasive determination of bacterial single cell properties by electrorotation

So far, electrorotation and its application to the determination of single cell properties have been limited to eukaryotes. Here an experimental system is described that allows the recording of electrorotation spectra of single bacterial cells. The small physical dimensions of the developed measuring chamber combined with a single frame video analysis made it possible to monitor the rotation of objects as small as bacteria by microscopical observation despite Brownian rotation and cellular movement. Thus physical properties of distinct organelles of E. coli could be simultaneously determined in vivo at frequencies between 1 kHz and 1 GHz. Experimental data were evaluated following a three-shell model of the cell. Electrical conductivities of cytoplasm and outer membrane were determined to 4.4 mS/cm and 25 microS/cm, respectively, that of the periplasmic space was found to increase with the square root of the medium ionic strength. Specific capacitances of inner and outer membrane amounted to 1.4 microF/cm2 and 0.26 microF/cm2, respectively, the thickness of the periplasm to about 50 nm. Heat treatment of the cells lead to a reduction of cytoplasmic conductivity to 0.9 mS/cm, probably caused by an efflux of ions through the permeabilized inner membrane.

Dielectric single particle spectroscopy for measurement of dispersion

Measuring the frequency-dependent behaviour of single particles or biological cells in inhomogeneous and/or rotating electric fields is a sensitive method for characterising their dielectric properties. This technique is able to detect broad dispersion in the megahertz range of homogeneous artificial Sephadex G15 spheres. Recent progress has opened up the possibility of carrying out dielectric spectroscopy in cell culture media. Dielectrophoretic and electrorotational spectra of different cells in media of varying conductivity can only be explained by the introduction of dispersive cell compartments. The cytoplasm of animal cells typically exhibits a broad dispersion around 15 MHz and there is evidence for membrane dispersion around 50 MHz.

Nystatin-induced changes in yeast monitored by time-resolved automated single cell electrorotation

A widespread use of electrorotation for the determination of cellular and subcellular properties has been hindered so far by the need for manual recording of cell movements. Therefore a system has been developed that allows the automatic collection of electrorotation spectra of single cells in real time. It employs a hardware based registration of image moments from which object orientation is calculated. Since the camera's video signal is processed without intermediate image storage a high data throughput of about two recordings per second could be achieved independently of image resolution. This made it possible to monitor changes in cell membrane and cytoplasm of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae under the influence of the antibiotic nystatin with a temporal resolution of 3 min. Up to 20 electrorotation spectra of an individual cell could be collected in the frequency range between 1 kHz and 1 GHz. Two distinct events 7 and 75 min after addition of nystatin were observed with a fast increase in membrane permeability accompanied by a nearly simultaneous drop in cytoplasmic conductivity.