Transdermal absorption of L-dopa from hydrogel in rats

Advances in Hydrogel-Based Drug Delivery Systems for Parkinson's Disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common central nervous system disorder (CNS) characterized by cell loss in the substantia nigra. Severe loss of dopaminergic neurons and Lewy body formation with α-synuclein inclusions are the main neuropathological features of PD. There's currently no cure for PD, but treatments are available to help relieve the symptoms and maintain quality of life. However, the variety of clinically available therapeutic molecules is mainly limited to treating symptoms rather than halting or reversing disease progression via medical interventions. As an emerging drug carrier, hydrogels loaded with therapeutic agents and cells are attracting attention as an alternative and potentially more effective approach to managing PD. The current work highlights applications of hydrogel-based biomaterials in cell culture and disease modeling as carriers for cells, medicines, and proteins as PD therapeutic models.

UCP1 and TRPM8 Expression in the Brown Fat Did Not Affect the Restriction of Menthol-Induced Hyperthermia by Estradiol in Ovariectomized Rats

Estradiol (E₂) modulates the central and peripheral thermoregulatory responses to cold. Menthol is an agonist of transient receptor potential melastatin type 8 (TRPM8), which is a peripheral cold receptor. E₂ suppresses menthol-induced elevation of body temperature (T_b) in ovariectomized rats, but the mechanism is unknown. The aim of the present study is to investigate the effect of E₂ on uncoupling protein 1 (UCP1), a thermogenic gene, and TRPM8 mRNA levels in ovariectomized rats applied menthol. A silastic tube was implanted in ovariectomized rats with and without E₂ underneath the dorsal skin (E₂(+) and E₂(-) groups), and data loggers for T_b measurement into peritoneal cavity. After application of 10% L-menthol or vehicle to the skin of the whole trunk of rats, T_b was measured for 2 h. The interscapular brown adipose tissue (BAT) and spinal ganglia of cervical, thoracic, and lumbar parts were obtained for RT-qPCR assay. In the menthol application, T_b in the E₂(+) group was lower than that in the E₂(-) group. The UCP1 mRNA in the BAT, TRPM8 mRNA in the BAT and spinal ganglia in all areas did not differ between the E₂(+) and E₂(-) groups. In conclusion, the UCP1 and TRPM8 expression in the brown fat did not affect the restriction of the menthol-induced hyperthermia by estradiol in ovariectomized rats.

Advances in Tissue Engineering and Innovative Fabrication Techniques for 3-D-Structures: Translational Applications in Neurodegenerative Diseases

In the field of regenerative medicine applied to neurodegenerative diseases, one of the most important challenges is the obtainment of innovative scaffolds aimed at improving the development of new frontiers in stem-cell therapy. In recent years, additive manufacturing techniques have gained more and more relevance proving the great potential of the fabrication of precision 3-D scaffolds. In this review, recent advances in additive manufacturing techniques are presented and discussed, with an overview on stimulus-triggered approaches, such as 3-D Printing and laser-based techniques, and deposition-based approaches. Innovative 3-D bioprinting techniques, which allow the production of cell/molecule-laden scaffolds, are becoming a promising frontier in disease modelling and therapy. In this context, the specific biomaterial, stiffness, precise geometrical patterns, and structural properties are to be considered of great relevance for their subsequent translational applications. Moreover, this work reports numerous recent advances in neural diseases modelling and specifically focuses on pre-clinical and clinical translation for scaffolding technology in multiple neurodegenerative diseases.

Multidisciplinary Perspectives for Alzheimer's and Parkinson's Diseases: Hydrogels for Protein Delivery and Cell-Based Drug Delivery as Therapeutic Strategies

This review presents two intriguing multidisciplinary strategies that might make the difference in the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. The first proposed strategy is based on the controlled delivery of recombinant proteins known to play a key role in these neurodegenerative disorders that are released in situ by optimized polymer-based systems. The second strategy is the use of engineered cells, encapsulated and delivered in situ by suitable polymer-based systems, that act as drug reservoirs and allow the delivery of selected molecules to be used in the treatment of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. In both these scenarios, the design and development of optimized polymer-based drug delivery and cell housing systems for central nervous system applications represent a key requirement. Materials science provides suitable hydrogel-based tools to be optimized together with suitably designed recombinant proteins or drug delivering-cells that, once in situ, can provide an effective treatment for these neurodegenerative disorders. In this scenario, only interdisciplinary research that fully integrates biology, biochemistry, medicine and materials science can provide a springboard for the development of suitable therapeutic tools, not only for the treatment of Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases but also, prospectively, for a wide range of severe neurodegenerative disorders.

Molecularly imprinted cyclodextrin nanosponges for the controlled delivery of L-DOPA: perspectives for the treatment of Parkinson's disease

BACKGROUND

L-DOPA is an amino acid precursor to the neurotransmitter dopamine that is extensively used as a prodrug for the treatment of Parkinson's disease. However, L-DOPA is an unstable compound: when exposed to light or added to aqueous solutions, it may degrade, compromising its therapeutic properties.

METHODS

In this work, a new type of drug-loaded cyclodextrin-based nanosponge, obtained using molecular imprinting, is described for the prolonged and controlled release of L-DOPA. The molecularly imprinted nanosponges (MIP-NSs) were synthesized by cross-linking β-cyclodextrin with 1,1'-carbonyldiimidazole in DMF in the presence of L-DOPA as a template molecule. TGA, DSC and FTIR analyses were performed to characterize the interactions between L-DOPA and the two nanosponge structures. Quantitative NMR spectroscopy was used to determine the amount and the affinity of L-DOPA entrapped in the nanosponges. The in vitro L-DOPA release kinetics from the NSs were quantitatively determined by HPLC analysis.

RESULTS

The MIP-NSs show a slower and more prolonged release profile than the non-imprinted nanosponges. No degradation of the L-DOPA hosted in the MIP-NSs was observed after long-term storage at room temperature.

CONCLUSIONS

The MIP-NSs are a promising alternative for the storage and controlled delivery of L-DOPA.

Transcutaneous delivery of levodopa: enhancement by fatty acid synthesis inhibition

The present investigation aimed at evaluating the role of fatty acid synthesis inhibition in enhancing transcutaneous delivery of levodopa (LD). Rat epidermis was treated with ethanol and various doses of cerulenin (an inhibitor of fatty acid synthase enzyme system) for reducing the normal level of fatty acids. Calcium chloride (0.1 mM) and/or verapamil (1 microM) were coapplied to cerulenin treated skin in order to modulate duration of epidermal perturbation. These treated skin portions were used for estimation of altered triglyceride content (an indicator of fatty acid synthesis), differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) analysis, and in vitro permeation of LD. Plasma concentration of LD was monitored in rats following topical application of various transdermal formulations. Application of cerulenin (0.1 or 0.15 mM/7 cm(2)) to viable rat skin inhibited approximately 60% triglyceride synthesis with respect to control at 2 h. Coapplication of calcium chloride (0.1 mM) significantly increased this inhibition, whereas verapamil application reduced this effect. The decrease in triglyceride content reduced the enthalpy of the lipid endothermic transition. The in vitro permeation of LD was enhanced 3-fold across skin excised after treatment with cerulenin. LD did not permeate across normal skin. The effective plasma concentration (C(eff)) of LD was achieved within 3 h and maintained till 10 h by a single topical application of a carbidopa-levodopa combination (1:4) to ethanol-perturbed cerulenin-treated skin. Coapplication of calcium chloride reduced the time lag to achieve C(eff) to 2 h and maintained it till 24 h. A single transdermal LD (64 mg) patch formulated with calcium chloride (0.1 mM) and cerulenin (0.1 mM) dissolved in a propylene glycol:ethanol (7:3) mixture seems to offer a noninvasive approach for transcutaneous delivery of levodopa.

Transdermal lisuride delivery in the treatment of Parkinson's disease

Transdermal delivery of dopamine agonists (DA) is a promising therapeutic concept, which aims to ameliorate frequency and intensity of motor fluctuations in patients with Parkinson's disease (PD). We treated 8 PD patients with unpredictable on-off phenomena with lisuride patches (release: 2-5 microg lisuride base/cm2/hour in mice) in addition to their preexisting antiparkinsonian drug regime up to a period of 8 days. In order to quantify the intensity and frequency of motor fluctuations, we determined the motor changing rate (MCR), which corresponds to the patient's self rating of motor function, performed every thirty minutes, divided through the number of scored intervals minus 1. Additional lisuride patch application significantly (p = 0.023) improved the MCR compared to baseline. Relevant side effects were transient skin irritations in four patients. Our observational study demonstrates the safety, tolerability and efficacy of transdermal lisuride delivery in the treatment of motor complications.

Transdermal application of bupivacaine-loaded poly(acrylamide(A)-co-monomethyl itaconate) hydrogels

Bupivacaine, an amide local anaesthetic agent of long-acting and intense anaesthesia, was incorporated into poly(acrylamide(A)-co-monomethyl itaconate (MMI)) hydrogels. The swelling behaviour of two gel compositions, without drug, 75A/25MMI and 60A/40MMI, through rabbit ear skin, mounted on a modified Franz diffusion cell, was studied. Both gel compositions reach the equilibrium swelling degree (88.9+/-0.7 wt.% for 75A/25MMI and 92.5+/-0.1 wt.% for 60A/40MMI). The swelling kinetics was in accordance with the second Fick's Law; diffusion coefficients indicate faster swelling for gels with lower amount of monomethyl itaconic acid. The skin flux of bupivacaine solution through rabbit ear skin was 105+/-24 microg/cm(2)/h, the effective permeability coefficient was 26 x 10(-3)+/-9 x 10(-3)cm/h, and 77+/-15% of bupivacaine was permeated. Bupivacaine-loaded gels allow the drug was permeated through the skin. 47+/-4% and 36+/-3% of the drug amount included in 75A/25MMI and 60A/40MMI hydrogels, respectively, was permeated. The skin flux of the drug was between 90+/-5 and 16+/-7 microg/cm(2)/h depending on the amount of bupivacaine included in the gel and the gel composition. Skin flux increases with the drug load of the gels. Furthermore, as more MMI in the gel slower skin flux of the drug due to bupivacaine-gel interactions.

Potential of transdermal drug delivery in Parkinson's disease

There has been a growing recognition that pulsatile stimulation of dopamine receptors may be an important mechanism in the generation of the motor fluctuations that often develop and compromise the effectiveness of long-term levodopa administration in persons with Parkinson's disease (PD). This has prompted investigation of treatment approaches that might provide more constant, and therefore physiological, dopamine receptor stimulation. Frequent levodopa administration, controlled-release levodopa preparations, inhibitors of levodopa metabolism, and duodenal, subcutaneous and even intravenous infusions of levodopa or dopamine agonists have all been employed with this goal in mind, but all have limitations. Transdermal drug delivery is a treatment approach that is not only capable of providing a constant rate of drug delivery, but is also non-invasive and relatively simple to use. However, developing a drug to be delivered transdermally for the treatment of PD has been anything but easy. Levodopa and many dopamine agonists are not sufficiently soluble to be administered via the transdermal route, and blind alleys have been encountered thus far in the investigation of suitably soluble drugs. Nevertheless, investigation continues and yet another candidate drug, rotigotine (N-0923), is currently under active investigation. Techniques designed to enhance skin permeation and thus improve the effectiveness of transdermal drug delivery are also potential sources for future treatment advances.

Improved stability and release control of levodopa and metaraminol using ion-exchange fibers and transdermal iontophoresis

Achievement of controlled drug delivery and stability of drugs during storage is a problem also in transdermal drug delivery. The objective of this study was to determine, whether an easily oxidized drug, levodopa, could be stabilized during storage using pH-adjustment and ion-exchange fibers. Controlled transdermal delivery of the zwitterionic levodopa was attempted by iontophoresis and ion-exchange fiber. Ion-exchange kinetics and transdermal permeation of a cationic (presumably more stable) model drug, metaraminol, were compared to the corresponding data of levodopa. Levodopa was rapidly oxidized in the presence of water, especially at basic pH-values. At acidic pH-values the stability was improved significantly. Ion-exchange group and the pH had a clear effect on the release of both the levodopa and metaraminol from the ion-exchange fiber. The adsorption/release kinetics of metaraminol were more easily controllable than the corresponding rate and extent of levodopa adsorption/release. Iontophoretic enhancement of drug permeation across the skin was clearly more significant with the positively charged metaraminol than with the zwitterionic levodopa. Ion-exchange fibers provide a promising alternative to control drug delivery and to store drugs that are degraded easily.

Role of sphingosine synthesis inhibition in transcutaneous delivery of levodopa

The present study was designed to investigate the role of skin sphingosine synthesis inhibition in enhancing the in vitro permeation of levodopa (LD), a hydrophilic drug, across rat skin. beta-Chloroalanine (beta-CA), a selective inhibitor of serine palmitoyl transferase was used for inhibiting sphingosine synthesis in viable skin. The sphingosine content in viable skin perturbed by acetone treatment and immediately treated with beta-CA (600 or 1200 microg/7 cm(2)) was significantly less than that of perturbed viable skin after 36 h of treatment (P<0.001). The in vitro permeation of LD across perturbed-beta-CA treated skin was significantly greater than that across perturbed skin (P<0.001). This indicates an inverse relationship between in vitro permeation of LD and skin sphingosine content. The systemic delivery of percutaneously applied LD across normal rat skin was negligible. Higher C(max), lower T(max) and maintenance of effective plasma concentration of LD over 28 h was achieved by a single topical application of carbidopa-LD combination (1:4) to perturbed-beta-CA treated skin. Hence, skin sphingosine synthesis inhibition can be used as a novel means of enhancing systemic delivery of LD.

Elevation of plasma levels of L-dopa in transdermal administration of L-dopa-butylester in rats

To increase delivery of L-dopa in its transdermal absorption, a new lipophilic derivative of L-dopa, L-dopa-butylester, was synthesized. An in-vitro study employing two-chamber diffusion cells, in which the excised rat abdominal skin was mounted, revealed that, in the presence of L-menthol and ethanol, L-dopa-butylester penetrated in its original form more effectively than L-dopa. L-Dopa-butylester sheets were made by immersing wiper sheets in methanol containing the compound, and then evaporating the methanol. An extraction study of the compound from the sheets revealed that its stability was maintained for at least 12 weeks. In an in-vivo cutaneous absorption study, an L-dopa-butylester sheet was attached to the shaved rat abdominal skin. A hydrogel containing L-menthol and ethanol was spread on vinyl tape, and this sheet was placed over it. In plasma, the L-dopa level rose linearly between 30 and 180 min after the cutaneous application; L-dopa-butylester was not detected. The L-dopa level was higher than that in which L-dopa was applied. These findings indicated that the lipophilic nature of L-dopa-butylester further increased its penetration through the skin, and that L-dopa-butylester that was taken up into the general circulation system was rapidly converted to L-dopa by hydrolysis in the body.

Transdermal absorption of L-dopa from a new system composed of two separate layers of L-dopa and hydrogel in rats

To maintain the stability of L-dopa in hydrogel, a new system composed of two separate layers of L-dopa and hydrogel was developed. L-Dopa sheets were made by immersing L-dopa solution into wiper sheets and by lyophilizing them. Examination for stability of L-dopa in the L-dopa sheet revealed that its stability was maintained for at least 12 weeks, providing the sheet was kept at room temperature in a dark box. In a cutaneous absorption study of L-dopa in rats, an L-dopa sheet was attached to the shaved abdominal skin. A hydrogel composed of cutaneous absorption enhancers, water and ethanol, was spread on vinyl tape (hydrogel sheet), and this sheet was placed over the L-dopa sheet. L-Dopa that was administered transdermally effectively penetrated through the skin: The plasma level of L-dopa peaked at 30 min and remained high between 60 and 180 min after the cutaneous application. Our system, composed of two separated layers of L-dopa and hydrogel, enabled the stability of L-dopa to be maintained without losing transdermal absorption of L-dopa.