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Heat shock protein 10 of Chlamydophila pneumoniae induces proinflammatory cytokines through Toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 and TLR4 in human monocytes THP-1. In Vitro Cell Dev Biol Anim 2011; 47:541-9. [DOI: 10.1007/s11626-011-9441-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2011] [Accepted: 06/29/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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Maselli DJ, Adams S, Peters J. The role of anti-infectives in the treatment of refractory asthma. Ther Adv Respir Dis 2011; 5:387-96. [PMID: 21459926 DOI: 10.1177/1753465811402534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Refractory asthma not only has a significant effect on quality of life, but also imposes an economic burden on society. Increasing evidence suggests that there is a pathophysiologic interaction between infection and allergic disease in patients with severe or refractory asthma. Therapeutic trials of macrolides and azoles are being utilized in some patients with refractory asthma who fail to respond to standard therapy. In this article we review the definition of refractory asthma and the potential pathophysiologic interactions between infection and allergic disease. Emerging data suggest that microorganisms and their byproducts may be a therapeutic target in the therapy of patients with severe or refractory asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego Jose Maselli
- Division of Pulmonary Diseases & Critical Care,University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, TX, USA
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Park CS, Kim TB, Moon KA, Bae YJ, Lee HR, Jang MK, Moon HB, Cho YS. Chlamydophila pneumoniae enhances secretion of VEGF, TGF-beta and TIMP-1 from human bronchial epithelial cells under Th2 dominant microenvironment. ALLERGY, ASTHMA & IMMUNOLOGY RESEARCH 2009; 2:41-7. [PMID: 20224677 PMCID: PMC2831610 DOI: 10.4168/aair.2010.2.1.41] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2009] [Accepted: 12/11/2009] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Purpose Chlamydophila pneumoniae infection in the airways is thought to be associated with the pathogenesis of asthma, especially in non-atopic severe asthma with irreversible airway obstruction that may be related to airway remodeling. Here, we investigated whether C. pneumoniae infection enhances the secretion of critical chemical mediators for airway remodeling, such as VEGF, TGF-β, and TIMP-1, in human bronchial epithelial cells (BECs) in a Th2-dominant microenvironment. Methods Human bronchial epithelial cells (BEAS-2B cells) were infected with C. pneumoniae strain TW183 and cultured in both a Th1-dominant microenvironment with INF-γ and a Th2-dominant microenvironment with IL-4 or IL-13 added to the culture medium. The VEGF, TGF-β, and TIMP-1 levels in the culture supernatants were measured using enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA). The activation of NF-κB in each experimental condition was determined using an electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Results Chlamydophila pneumoniae-infected BECs showed enhanced secretion of VEGF, TGF-β, and TIMP-1 compared with non-infected BECs. The levels of cytokines secreted from BECs were increased more when IL-13 was added to the culture medium. C. pneumoniae-infected BECs also showed increased NF-κB activation. Conclusions These results suggest that C. pneumoniae plays a role in the pathogenesis of airway remodeling in asthma, revealing a Th2-dominant immune response. Further studies are required to clarify the precise mechanism of C. pneumoniae infection in airway remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chan-Sun Park
- Department of Allergy, Asan Medical Center, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
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Xepapadaki P, Koutsoumpari I, Papaevagelou V, Karagianni C, Papadopoulos NG. Atypical bacteria and macrolides in asthma. ALLERGY, ASTHMA, AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY : OFFICIAL JOURNAL OF THE CANADIAN SOCIETY OF ALLERGY AND CLINICAL IMMUNOLOGY 2008; 4:111-6. [PMID: 20525132 PMCID: PMC2868865 DOI: 10.1186/1710-1492-4-3-111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
: Chlamydophila pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae are common pathogens causing acute illness in both the upper and lower airways. Several observations are supportive of a possible causative role of these pathogens in asthma; however, more evidence is required before this becomes meaningful in clinical practice. Atypical bacteria can enhance airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation, both of which have been associated with exacerbations in patients with preexisting asthma. It is less clear whether the above mechanisms might also be responsible for the development of asthma. Difficulties in accurately diagnosing these infections contribute to such uncertainty. In the present report, evidence of the involvement of Chlamydophila and Mycoplasma infection in the development and the progression of asthma are reviewed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Ioanna Koutsoumpari
- Allergy Department, 2nd Pediatric Clinic, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | | | | | - Nikolaos G Papadopoulos
- Allergy Department, 2nd Pediatric Clinic, University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- Allergy Research Center, 41 Fidippidou str, 11527 Goudi, Greece
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Blasi F, Aliberti S, Allegra L, Piatti G, Tarsia P, Ossewaarde JM, Verweij V, Nijkamp FP, Folkerts G. Chlamydophila pneumoniae induces a sustained airway hyperresponsiveness and inflammation in mice. Respir Res 2007; 8:83. [PMID: 18021431 PMCID: PMC2194694 DOI: 10.1186/1465-9921-8-83] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2007] [Accepted: 11/19/2007] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Background It has been reported that Chlamydophila (C.) pneumoniae is involved in the initiation and promotion of asthma and chronic obstructive pulmonary diseases (COPD). Surprisingly, the effect of C. pneumoniae on airway function has never been investigated. Methods In this study, mice were inoculated intranasally with C. pneumoniae (strain AR39) on day 0 and experiments were performed on day 2, 7, 14 and 21. Results We found that from day 7, C. pneumoniae infection causes both a sustained airway hyperresponsiveness and an inflammation. Interferon-γ (IFN-γ) and macrophage inflammatory chemokine-2 (MIP-2) levels in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL)-fluid were increased on all experimental days with exception of day 7 where MIP-2 concentrations dropped to control levels. In contrast, tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) levels were only increased on day 7. From day 7 to 21 epithelial damage and secretory cell hypertrophy was observed. It is suggested that, the inflammatory cells/mediators, the epithelial damage and secretory cell hypertrophy contribute to initiation of airway hyperresponsiveness. Conclusion Our study demonstrates for the first time that C. pneumoniae infection can modify bronchial responsiveness. This has clinical implications, since additional changes in airway responsiveness and inflammation-status induced by this bacterium may worsen and/or provoke breathlessness in asthma and COPD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Blasi
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases, University of Milan, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Fondazione Policlinico-Mangiagalli-Regina Elena, Milano, Italy.
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Blasi F, Johnston SL. The role of antibiotics in asthma. Int J Antimicrob Agents 2007; 29:485-93. [PMID: 17353114 PMCID: PMC7126415 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijantimicag.2006.11.029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2006] [Accepted: 11/21/2006] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
There is increasing evidence that atypical respiratory pathogens such as Chlamydophila pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae may contribute to the pathogenesis of both stable asthma and asthma exacerbations. It is postulated that these organisms may contribute to inflammation in the airways possibly by activating inflammatory mechanisms in the respiratory tract. The macrolide class of antibiotics may have a part to play in the management of asthma by exerting anti-inflammatory effects on the chronically inflamed airways in addition to their anti-infective action. The ketolide antibiotics may also have similar properties. This paper discusses the role of these antibiotics in the management of asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Blasi
- Institute of Respiratory Diseases, University of Milan, IRCCS Ospedale Maggiore Policlinico, Mangiagalli e Regina Elena, Milan, Italy
| | - Sebastian L. Johnston
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, National Heart and Lung Institute, Imperial College London, London W2 IPG, UK
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +44 20 7594 3764; fax: +44 20 7262 8913.
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LaRue RW, Dill BD, Giles DK, Whittimore JD, Raulston JE. Chlamydial Hsp60-2 is iron responsive in Chlamydia trachomatis serovar E-infected human endometrial epithelial cells in vitro. Infect Immun 2007; 75:2374-80. [PMID: 17307941 PMCID: PMC1865735 DOI: 10.1128/iai.01465-06] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Chlamydial 60-kDa heat shock proteins (cHsp60s) are known to play a prominent role in the immunopathogenesis of disease. It is also known that several stress-inducing growth conditions, such as heat, iron deprivation, or exposure to gamma interferon, result in the development of persistent chlamydial forms that often exhibit enhanced expression of cHsp60. We have shown previously that the expression of cHsp60 is greatly enhanced in Chlamydia trachomatis serovar E propagated in an iron-deficient medium. The objective of this work was to determine which single cHsp60 or combination of the three cHsp60 homologs encoded by this organism responds to iron limitation. Using monospecific polyclonal peptide antisera that recognize only cHsp60-1, cHsp60-2, or cHsp60-3, we found that expression of cHsp60-2 is responsive to iron deprivation. Overall, our studies suggest that the expression of cHsp60 homologs differs among the mechanisms currently known to induce persistence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard W LaRue
- Department of Microbiology, James H. Quillen College of Medicine, East Tennessee State University, P.O. Box 70579, Johnson City, TN 37614-1708, USA
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Ciervo A, Petrucca A, Villano U, Fioroni G, Cassone A. Low prevalence of antibodies against heat shock protein 10 of Chlamydophila pneumoniae in patients with coronary heart disease. J Microbiol Methods 2006; 63:248-53. [PMID: 15893396 DOI: 10.1016/j.mimet.2005.03.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2004] [Revised: 03/18/2005] [Accepted: 03/25/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
In this study the prevalence of antibodies against the heat shock protein 10 (HSP10) of Chamydophila pneumoniae (CP) (as assessed by ELISA) in patients with coronary heart disease (CHD) and seropositive or seronegative to CP, as assessed by microimmunofluorescence (MIF), was investigated. The controls were age- and sex-matched healthy subjects. The HSP10 preparation used throughout this study was a 6-his-tagged recombinant protein preliminarily shown to be immunogenic in mice. Low level IgG reactivity against CP-HSP10 was detected in 19 out of 200 and 5 out of 100 CHD patients and controls, respectively. No IgM or IgA isotypes were found. Furthermore, there was no difference in the frequency or level of anti-HSP10 IgG between CP-positive and CP-negative sera either in patients (11/140=7.9% vs. 8/60=13%) or in healthy subjects (3/40=7.5% vs. 2/60=3.3%). Overall, our data indicate that CP-HSP10, at variance with CP-HSP60, to which it is genetically and physiologically linked, should not be regarded as a major expressed immunogen or a marker of infection by CP in CHD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alessandra Ciervo
- Department of Infectious, Parasitic and Immune-mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, viale Regina Elena 299, 00161 Rome, Italy
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Pelaia G, Vatrella A, Gallelli L, Renda T, Cazzola M, Maselli R, Marsico SA. Respiratory infections and asthma. Respir Med 2005; 100:775-84. [PMID: 16289785 PMCID: PMC7135443 DOI: 10.1016/j.rmed.2005.08.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2005] [Accepted: 08/24/2005] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
Respiratory tract infections caused by both viruses and/or atypical bacteria are involved in the pathogenesis of asthma. In particular, several viruses such as respiratory syncytial virus, rhinovirus and influenza/parainfluenza viruses may favour the expression of the asthmatic phenotype, being also implicated in the induction of disease exacerbations. Within this pathological context, a significant role can also be played by airway bacterial colonizations and infections due to Chlamydiae and Mycoplasms. All these microbial agents probably interfere with complex immunological pathways, thus contributing to induce and exacerbate asthma in genetically predisposed individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Girolamo Pelaia
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Alessandro Vatrella
- Department of Cardiothoracic and Respiratory Sciences, Second University of Naples, Italy
| | - Luca Gallelli
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Teresa Renda
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Mario Cazzola
- Unit of Pneumology and Allergology, Department of Respiratory Medicine, A. Cardarelli Hospital, Via del Parco Margherita 24, 80121 Napoli, Italy
- Corresponding author. Tel.: +81 404188 813486.
| | - Rosario Maselli
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, University “Magna Græcia” of Catanzaro, Italy
| | - Serafino A. Marsico
- Department of Cardiothoracic and Respiratory Sciences, Second University of Naples, Italy
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Johnston SL, Martin RJ. Chlamydophila pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae: a role in asthma pathogenesis? Am J Respir Crit Care Med 2005; 172:1078-89. [PMID: 15961690 DOI: 10.1164/rccm.200412-1743pp] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The potential role of atypical bacterial infection in the pathogenesis of asthma is a subject of continuing debate. There is an increasing body of literature concerning the association between the atypical bacteria Chlamydophila pneumoniae and Mycoplasma pneumoniae and asthma pathogenesis; however, many studies investigating such a link have been uncontrolled and have provided conflicting evidence, in part due to the difficulty in accurately diagnosing infection with these atypical pathogens. This article reviews the evidence for an association between atypical bacterial respiratory pathogens and the pathogenesis of asthma, and discusses the biological mechanisms that could account for such a link. The possible role of antibacterial therapy in the management of asthma and the need for well-designed studies to investigate this is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian L Johnston
- Department of Respiratory Medicine, National Heart and Lung Institute and Wright Fleming Institute of Infection and Immunity, Imperial College London, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
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Hansbro PM, Beagley KW, Horvat JC, Gibson PG. Role of atypical bacterial infection of the lung in predisposition/protection of asthma. Pharmacol Ther 2004; 101:193-210. [PMID: 15030999 DOI: 10.1016/j.pharmthera.2003.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Asthma is a common inflammatory disease of the airways that results in airway narrowing and wheezing. Allergic asthma is characterised by a T-helper cell-type (Th) 2 response, immunoglobulin (Ig) E production, and eosinophilic influx into the airways. Recently, many clinical studies have implicated Mycoplasma pneumoniae and Chlamydia pneumoniae in the development and exacerbation of both chronic and acute asthma. It is widely accepted that M. pneumoniae and C. pneumoniae infections require Th1 immunity for clearance; therefore, according to the hygiene hypothesis, these infections should be protective against asthma. Here, we review the clinical evidence for the association and mechanisms of predisposition to and protection against asthma by these infections. We will examine the following question: Is it the absence of infection or the age of the individual on infection that confers susceptibility or resistance to asthma and does this vary between normal and predisposed individuals? We put forward a hypothesis of the effects of these infections on the development and prevention of asthma and how novel preventative and treatment strategies involving these microbes may be targeted against asthma.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philip M Hansbro
- Discipline of Immunology and Microbiology, School of Biomedical Sciences, University of Newcastle, Callaghan, New South Wales, Australia.
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Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW A small percentage of asthma exacerbations are linked with infection by an atypical bacterium, such as Chlamydia pneumoniae or Mycoplasma pneumoniae. These bacteria also have been proposed to cause occult chronic lower airway inflammation and to initiate nonatopic asthma in adults. Consequently, the logical procedure would be to eliminate these pathogens as soon and as thoroughly as possible using antibiotics. Nonetheless, antibiotics are not recommended even for the treatment of acute asthma exacerbations except as needed for comorbid conditions. These discrepancies highlight the need to define the role, if any, of antimicrobials that are active against atypical pathogens, mainly macrolides, but also tetracyclines and fluoroquinolones, in the treatment of asthma. RECENT FINDINGS Macrolides are antibiotics with both antimicrobial and antiinflammatory activities. Some studies have documented that these agents could be useful in the treatment of occult infection in asthma because of their antimicrobial activity against atypical pathogens. They could also lead to reduction of the airways inflammation by decreasing the transcription of mRNA for a variety of cytokines and inhibiting interleukin-8 release by eosinophils, and therefore improvement of symptoms and pulmonary function. These effects are not caused by bronchodilation, elevation of serum theophylline level, or steroid-sparing mechanism. SUMMARY The available clinical evidence seems to support use of macrolides in the treatment of asthma because of their antimicrobial activity. However, studies that may confirm this hypothesis are scarce and with limited scientific value because of their open, uncontrolled design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Cazzola
- A. Cardarelli Hospital, Department of Respiratory Medicine, Unit of Pneumology and Allergology, Naples, Italy.
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