Sporulation in prokaryotes and lower eukaryotes

Endospore-enriched sequencing approach reveals unprecedented diversity of Firmicutes in sediments

We present a method for the physical isolation of endospores from environmental samples allowing the specific targeting of endospore-forming bacteria for sequencing (endospore-enriched community). The efficiency of the method was tested on lake sediment samples. After 16S rRNA gene amplicon sequencing, the composition in the endospore-enriched community was compared with the community from untreated control samples (whole community). In the whole community, Firmicutes had a relative abundance of 8% and 19% in the two different lake sediments. In contrast, in the endospore-enriched community, Firmicutes abundance increased to 90.6% and 83.9%, respectively, confirming the efficiency of the endospore enrichment. The relative abundance of other microbial groups that form spore-like resisting states (i.e. actinobacteria, cyanobacteria and myxococcales) was below 2% in the endospore-enriched community, indicating that the method is adapted to true endospores. Representatives from two out of the three known classes of Firmicutes (Bacilli and Clostridia) were detected and supposedly asporogenic groups (e.g. Ethanoligenes and Trichococcus) could be detected. The method presented here is a leap forward for ecological studies of endospore-forming Firmicutes. It can be applied to other types of samples in order to reveal the diversity and metabolic potential of this bacterial group in the environment.

Lipid body formation plays a central role in cell fate determination during developmental differentiation of Myxococcus xanthus

Cell differentiation is widespread during the development of multicellular organisms, but rarely observed in prokaryotes. One example of prokaryotic differentiation is the gram-negative bacterium Myxococcus xanthus. In response to starvation, this gliding bacterium initiates a complex developmental programme that results in the formation of spore-filled fruiting bodies. How the cells metabolically support the necessary complex cellular differentiation from rod-shaped vegetative cells into spherical spores is unknown. Here, we present evidence that intracellular lipid bodies provide the necessary metabolic fuel for the development of spores. Formed at the onset of starvation, these lipid bodies gradually disappear until they are completely used up by the time the cells have become mature spores. Moreover, it appears that lipid body formation in M. xanthus is an important initial step indicating cell fate during differentiation. Upon starvation, two subpopulations of cells occur: cells that form lipid bodies invariably develop into spores, while cells that do not form lipid bodies end up becoming peripheral rods, which are cells that lack signs of morphological differentiation and stay in a vegetative-like state. These data indicate that lipid bodies not only fuel cellular differentiation but that their formation represents the first known morphological sign indicating cell fate during differentiation.

Computational identification of the Spo0A-phosphate regulon that is essential for the cellular differentiation and development in Gram-positive spore-forming bacteria

Spo0A-phosphate is essential for the initiation of cellular differentiation and developmental processes in Gram-positive spore-forming bacteria. Here we combined comparative genomics with analyses of microarray expression profiles to identify the Spo0A-phosphate regulon in Bacillus subtilis. The consensus Spo0A-phosphate DNA-binding motif identified from the training set based on different computational algorithms is an 8 bp sequence, TTGTCGAA. The same motif was identified by aligning the upstream regulatory sequences of spo0A-dependent genes obtained from the expression profile of Sad67 (a constitutively active form of Spo0A) and their orthologs. After the transcription units (TUs) having putative Spo0A-phosphate binding sites were obtained, conservation of regulons among the genomes of B.subtilis, Bacillus halodurans and Bacillus anthracis, and expression profiles were employed to identify the most confident predictions. Besides genes already known to be directly under the control of Spo0A-phosphate, 276 novel members (organized in 109 TUs) of the Spo0A-phosphate regulon in B.subtilis are predicted in this study. The sensitivity and specificity of our predictions are estimated based on known sites and combinations of different types of evidence. Further characterization of the novel candidates will provide information towards understanding the role of Spo0A-phosphate in the sporulation process, as well as the entire genetic network governing cellular differentiation and developmental processes in B.subtilis.

Response regulators of bacterial signal transduction systems: selective domain shuffling during evolution

Response regulators of bacterial sensory transduction systems generally consist of receiver module domains covalently linked to effector domains. The effector domains include DNA binding and/or catalytic units that are regulated by sensor kinase-catalyzed aspartyl phosphorylation within their receiver modules. Most receiver modules are associated with three distinct families of DNA binding domains, but some are associated with other types of DNA binding domains, with methylated chemotaxis protein (MCP) demethylases, or with sensor kinases. A few exist as independent entities which regulate their target systems by noncovalent interactions. In this study the molecular phylogenies of the receiver modules and effector domains of 49 fully sequenced response regulators and their homologues were determined. The three major, evolutionarily distinct, DNA binding domains found in response regulators were evaluated for their phylogenetic relatedness, and the phylogenetic trees obtained for these domains were compared with those for the receiver modules. Members of one family (family 1) of DNA binding domains are linked to large ATPase domains which usually function cooperatively in the activation of E. coli sigma 54-dependent promoters or their equivalents in other bacteria. Members of a second family (family 2) always function in conjunction with the E. coli sigma 70 or its equivalent in other bacteria. A third family of DNA binding domains (family 3) functions by an uncharacterized mechanism involving more than one sigma factor. These three domain families utilize distinct helix-turn-helix motifs for DNA binding. The phylogenetic tree of the receiver modules revealed three major and several minor clusters of these domains. The three major receiver module clusters (clusters 1, 2, and 3) generally function with the three major families of DNA binding domains (families 1, 2, and 3, respectively) to comprise three classes of response regulators (classes 1, 2, and 3), although several exceptions exist. The minor clusters of receiver modules were usually, but not always, associated with other types of effector domains. Finally, several receiver modules did not fit into a cluster. It was concluded that receiver modules usually diverged from common ancestral protein domains together with the corresponding effector domains, although domain shuffling, due to intragenic splicing and fusion, must have occurred during the evolution of some of these proteins. Multiple sequence alignments of the 49 receiver modules and their various types of effector domains, together with other homologous domains, allowed definition of regions of striking sequence similarity and degrees of conservation of specific residues. Sequence data were correlated with structure/function when such information was available.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)