Synthesis of galactosyl compounds for targeted gene delivery

Conjugates of small targeting molecules to non-viral vectors for the mediation of siRNA

To use siRNA (small interfering RNA) for gene therapy, a gene delivery system is often necessary to overcome several challenging requirements including rapid excretion, low stability in blood serum, non-specific accumulation in tissues, poor cellular uptake and inefficient intracellular release. Active and/or passive targeting should help the delivery system to reach the desired tissue or cell, to be internalized, and to deliver siRNA to the cytoplasm so that siRNA can inhibit protein synthesis. This review covers conjugates of small targeting molecules and non-viral delivery systems for the mediation of siRNA, with a focus on their transfection properties in order to help the development of new and efficient siRNA delivery systems, as the therapeutic solutions of tomorrow.

STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE

The delivery of siRNA into cells or tissues remains to be a challenge for its applications, an alternative strategy for siRNA delivery systems is direct conjugation of non-viral vectors with targeting moieties for cellular delivery. In comparison to macromolecules, small targeting molecules have attracted great attention due to their many potential advantages including significant simplicity and ease of production, good repeatability and biodegradability. This review will focus on the most recent advances in the delivery of siRNA using conjugates of small targeting molecules and non-viral delivery systems. Based the editor's suggestions, we hope the revised manuscript could provide more profound understanding to the conjugates of targeting molecules to vectors for mediation of siRNA.

Comparative in silico-in vivo evaluation of ASGP-R ligands for hepatic targeting of curcumin Gantrez nanoparticles

The present study aims to design hepatic targeted curcumin (CUR) nanoparticles using Gantrez (GZ) as a polymer. Three carbohydrate-based hepatocyte asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGP-R) ligands were selected for the study, namely kappa carrageenan (KC), arabinogalactan (AG), and pullulan (P). AG and KC are galactose based while P is a glucose-based polymer. CUR-GZ nanoparticles were prepared by nanoprecipitation and anchored with the ligands by nonspecific adsorption onto preformed nanoparticles. The change in zeta potential values confirmed adsorption of the ligands. Docking simulation was evaluated as a tool to predict ligand ASGP-R interactions, using grid-based ligand docking with energies (Glide). Monomers and dimers were used as representative units of polymer for docking analysis. The binding of ASGP-R was validated using D-galactose as monomer. The interaction of the ligands with the receptor was evaluated based on Glide scores and E model values, both for monomers and dimers. The data of the docking study based on Glide scores and E model values suggested higher affinity of AG and P to the ASGP-R, compared to KC. At 1 h, following intravenous administration of the nanoparticles to rats, the in vivo hepatic accumulation in the order CUR-GZAG > CUR-GZKC > CUR-GZP correlated with the docking data based on Glide scores. However, at the end of 6 h, pullulan exhibited maximum hepatic accumulation and arabinogalactan minimum accumulation (p < 0.05). Nevertheless, as predicted by docking analysis, arabinogalactan and pullulan revealed maximum hepatic accumulation. Docking analysis using dimers as representative stereochemical units of polymers provides a good indication of ligand receptor affinity. Docking analysis provides a useful tool for the preliminary screening of ligands for hepatic targeting.

Novel targeted liposomes deliver sirna to hepatocellular carcinoma cells in vitro

Liposomes form a major class of non-viral vectors for short interfering RNA delivery, however tissue and cell-specific targeting are additional requirements in the design of short interfering RNA delivery systems with a therapeutic potential. Selective delivery of liposomes to hepatocytes may be achieved by directing complexes to the asialoglycoprotein receptor, which is expressed on hepatocytes, and which displays high affinity for the β-d-galactopyranosyl moiety. We aimed to show that the d-galactopyranosyl ring in direct β-glycosidic link to cholesterol, when formulated into liposomes with 3β[N-(N',N'-dimethylaminopropane) carbamoyl] cholesterol (Chol-T) or its quaternary trimethylammonium analogue (Chol-Q), may promote targeted delivery of cytotoxic short interfering RNA to the human hepatoma cell line HepG2 via the asialoglycoprotein receptor. Liposome-short interfering RNA interactions were characterized by electron microscopy, dye displacement, gel retardation and nuclease assays. Stable short interfering RNA-protective lipoplexes were formed at N/P ratios in the range 5:1-7:1. Targeted lipoplex 4 achieved high transfection efficiencies at 50 nm short interfering RNA (70%) and <10% in a competition assay, whilst untargeted complexes reached low levels at the same concentration (<25%). Transfection efficiencies of all lipoplexes in the asialoglycoprotein receptor-negative cell line HEK293 under the same conditions were low. Lipoplexes containing cholesteryl-β-d-galactopyranoside may therefore form the basis for the development of useful hepatotropic short interfering RNA delivery vectors.

Synthesis and in vitro inhibition properties of siRNA conjugates carrying glucose and galactose with different presentations

Oligoribonucleotide conjugates and the corresponding siRNA duplexes against tumor necrosis factor carrying one, two, or four glucose and galactose residues at the 5'-end have been prepared using phosphoramidite chemistry. Carbohydrate-modified siRNA duplexes have similar inhibitory properties than unmodified RNA duplexes in HeLa cells transfected with oligofectamine. When HeLa cells were treated with siRNA carrying one, two, or four glucose residues without oligofectamine, no inhibition was observed. The inhibitory properties of siRNA carrying galactose residues without transfecting agent were tested on HuH-7 cells that have abundant asialoglycoprotein receptors. In these cells siRNA carrying galactose residues have slight anti-TNF inhibitory properties (25% in the best case) that are eliminated if the receptors are blocked with a competitor. These results demonstrate receptor-mediated uptake of siRNA carrying galactose residues, although the efficacy of the process is not enough for efficient RNA interference experiments.

Carbohydrate polymers for nonviral nucleic acid delivery

Carbohydrates have been investigated and developed as delivery vehicles for shuttling nucleic acids into cells. In this review, we present the state of the art in carbohydrate-based polymeric vehicles for nucleic acid delivery, with the focus on the recent successes in preclinical models, both in vitro and in vivo. Polymeric scaffolds based on the natural polysaccharides chitosan, hyaluronan, pullulan, dextran, and schizophyllan each have unique properties and potential for modification, and these results are discussed with the focus on facile synthetic routes and favorable performance in biological systems. Many of these carbohydrates have been used to develop alternative types of biomaterials for nucleic acid delivery to typical polyplexes, and these novel materials are discussed. Also presented are polymeric vehicles that incorporate copolymerized carbohydrates into polymer backbones based on polyethylenimine and polylysine and their effect on transfection and biocompatibility. Unique scaffolds, such as clusters and polymers based on cyclodextrin (CD), are also discussed, with the focus on recent successes in vivo and in the clinic. These results are presented with the emphasis on the role of carbohydrate and charge on transfection. Use of carbohydrates as molecular recognition ligands for cell-type specific delivery is also briefly reviewed. We contend that carbohydrates have contributed significantly to progress in the field of non-viral DNA delivery, and these new discoveries are impactful for developing new vehicles and materials for treatment of human disease.

Modified pectin-based carrier for gene delivery: cellular barriers in gene delivery course

The use of polysaccharides as DNA carriers has high potential for gene therapy applications. Pectin is a structural plant polysaccharide heterogeneous with respect to its chemical structure. It contains branches rich in galactose residues which serve as potential ligands for membrane receptors interaction. In order to make the anionic pectin applicable for DNA complexation, it was modified with three different amine groups (cationic). Pectin-NH2 was prepared by modifying the galacturonic acids carboxyl groups with primary amine groups and further modified to generate pectin-T (T=N+H(CH3)(2)) and pectin-NH2-Q (Q=N+(CH3)(3)). All three modified pectins formed complexes with plasmid DNA as indicated by gel electrophoresis analysis. The size and morphology of pectin-NH2/DNA complexes were examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM). Transfection experiments were carried out with human embryonic kidney cell lines (HEK293), using plasmid DNA encoding for green fluorescence protein (GFP). Transfection efficiency was analyzed by flow cytometry analysis, using FACS. Pectin-NH2-Q was the most efficient carrier. Addition of chloroquine ("lysosomotropic" agent) to transfection medium substantially enhanced the HEK293 transfection, indicating that endocytosis is the preferable internalization pathway and implies on the complex inability to escape the endosome. Pectin's galactose residues contribution to transfection was examined by inhibiting pectin binding to membrane receptors (galectins), using galactose and lactose as competitive inhibitors to this interaction. Resulting reduction of transfection efficiency demonstrated the importance of pectin's galactose residues to HEK293 transfection. Suggesting the modified pectin is a promising non-viral carrier for targeted gene delivery to cancer cells with galactose-binding lectins on their surface.

Delivery of DNA HIV-1 vaccine to the liver induces high and long-lasting humoral immune responses

The quality of immune responses induced by DNA vaccination depends on the site of DNA administration, the expression, and the properties of the encoded antigen. In the present study, we demonstrate that intravenous hydrodynamic HIV-1 envelope DNA injection resulted in high levels of expression of HIV-1 envelope antigen in the liver. When compared to the administration of DNA by i.n., i.d., i.m., and i.splenic routes, hydrodynamic vaccination induced, upon DNA boosting, levels of HIV-1 envelope-specific antibodies 40-fold higher than those elicited by the other routes tested. Hydrodynamic vaccination with 1 microg DNA induced higher humoral responses than 100 microg DNA given intramuscularly in the prime-boost regimen. High levels of envelope-specific IgG and IgA antibodies were induced in genital tract secretions after two doses of DNA followed by intranasal boosting with recombinant HIV-1 gp120 protein. Furthermore, two doses of 100 microg DNA generated interferon-gamma production in approximately 4.3+/-1.7% of CD8(+) splenocytes after in vitro stimulation with HIV-1 envelope peptides. These results demonstrate that DNA vaccines targeted to tissues with high proteosynthetic activity, such as the liver, results in enhanced immune responses.

Dendrimers as drug delivery vehicles: non-covalent interactions of bioactive compounds with dendrimers

This mini review highlights issues associated with the use of dendrimers as drug delivery vehicles. The review introduces dendrimers and summarizes findings on their use in vivo and in vitro. Specifically, this review is limited to examples wherein the drug is non-covalently associated with the dendrimer. Examples wherein the drug is covalently attached to the dendrimer are not discussed.

Bifunctional compounds for targeted hepatic gene delivery

A series of bifunctional compounds with galactosyl residues as targeting ligand for asialoglycoprotein receptors on hepatocytes and various dendrimers as the DNA-binding domain was synthesized. When mixed with plasmid DNA, these compounds self assembled into particles that exhibited high transfection activity both in vitro and in vivo. Optimal activity in liver cells was observed with compounds containing three galactosyl residues and 16 dendrimer arms. These results suggest that domain-based design is an effective strategy for development of a new generation of synthetic gene carriers.

Gold Nanoparticles as a Versatile Platform for Optimizing Physicochemical Parameters for Targeted Drug Delivery

The development of targeted vehicles for systemic drug delivery relies on optimizing both the cell-targeting ligand and the physicochemical characteristics of the nanoparticle carrier. A versatile platform based on modification of gold nanoparticles with thiolated polymers is presented in which design parameters can be varied independently and systematically. Nanoparticle formulations of varying particle size, surface charge, surface hydrophilicity, and galactose ligand density were prepared by conjugation of PEG-thiol and galactose-PEG-thiol to gold colloids. This platform was applied to screen for nanoparticle formulations that demonstrate hepatocyte-targeted delivery in vivo. Nanoparticle size and the presence of galactose ligands were found to significantly impact the targeting efficiency. Thus, this platform can be readily applied to determine design parameters for targeted drug delivery systems.Modified gold nanoparticles are a suitable model for nanoparticle-based gene carriers.

Ligands of the asialoglycoprotein receptor for targeted gene delivery, part 1: Synthesis of and binding studies with biotinylated cluster glycosides containing N-acetylgalactosamine

In order to develop the non-viral Bioplex vector system for targeted delivery of genes to hepatocytes, we have evaluated the structure-function relationship for a number of synthetic ligands designed for specific interaction with the hepatic lectin ASGPr. Biotinylated ligand derivatives containing two, three or six beta-linked N-acetylgalactosamine (GalNAc) residues were synthesized, bound to fluorescent-labeled streptavidin and tested for binding and uptake to HepG2 cells using flow cytometry analysis (FACS). Uptake efficiency increased with number of displayed GalNAc units per ligand, in a receptor dependent manner. Thus, a derivative displaying six GalNAc units showed the highest uptake efficacy both in terms of number of internalizing cells and increased amount of material taken up per each cell. However, this higher efficiency was shown to be due not so much to higher number of sugar units, but to higher accessibility of the sugar units for interaction with the receptor (longer spacer). Improving the flexibility and accessibility of a trimeric GalNAc ligand through use of a longer spacer markedly influenced the uptake efficiency, while increasing the number of GalNAc units per ligand above three only provided a minor contribution to the overall affinity. We hereby report the details of the chemical synthesis of the ligands and the structure-function studies in vitro.

In vivo application of RNA interference: from functional genomics to therapeutics

RNAi has rapidly become a powerful tool for drug target discovery and validation in cell culture, and now has largely displaced efforts with antisense and ribozymes. Consequently, interest is rapidly growing for extension of its application to in vivo systems, such as animal disease models and human therapeutics. Studies on RNAi have resulted in two basic methods for its use for gene selective inhibition: 1) cytoplasmic delivery of short dsRNA oligonucleotides (siRNA), which mimics an active intermediate of an endogenous RNAi mechanism and 2) nuclear delivery of gene expression cassettes that express a short hairpin RNA (shRNA), which mimics the micro interfering RNA (miRNA) active intermediate of a different endogenous RNAi mechanism. Non-viral gene delivery systems are a diverse collection of technologies that are applicable to both of these forms of RNAi. Importantly, unlike antisense and ribozyme systems, a remarkable trait of siRNA is a lack of dependence on chemical modifications blocking enzymatic degradation, although chemical protection methods developed for the earlier systems are being incorporated into siRNA and are generally compatible with non-viral delivery systems. The use of siRNA is emerging more rapidly than for shRNA, in part due to the increased effort required to construct shRNA expression systems before selection of active sequences and verification of biological activity are obtained. In contrast, screens of many siRNA sequences can be accomplished rapidly using synthetic oligos. It is not surprising that the use of siRNA in vivo is also emerging first. Initial in vivo studies have been reported for both viral and non-viral delivery but viral delivery is limited to shRNA. This review describes the emerging in vivo application of non-viral delivery systems for RNAi for functional genomics, which will provide a foundation for further development of RNAi therapeutics. Of interest is the rapid adaptation of ligand-targeted plasmid-based nanoparticles for RNAi agents. These systems are growing in capabilities and beginning to pose a serious rival to viral vector based gene delivery. The activity of siRNA in the cytoplasm may lower the hurdle and thereby accelerate the successful development of therapeutics based on targeted non-viral delivery systems.

Receptor binding characteristics and cytotoxicity of insulin-methotrexate

AIM: To characterize the receptor binding affinity and cytotoxicity of insulin-methotrexate (MTX) for the potential utilization of insulin as carriers for carcinoma target drugs.

METHODS: MTX was covalently linked to insulin. Insulin-MTX conjugate was purified by Sephadex G-25 column and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography. Hepatocellular carcinoma cell membrane fractions were isolated by sucrose density gradient centrifugation. Competitive displacement of ¹²⁵I-insulin with insulin and insulin-MTX binding to insulin receptors were carried out. Cytoreductive effect of insulin-MTX on human hepatoma BEL7402 cells and human hepatocyte cell line HL7702 was evaluated using the MTT assay.

RESULTS: Insulin-MTX competed as effectively as insulin with ¹²⁵I-insulin for insulin receptors. The values of Kd for insulin-MTX and insulin were 93.82 ± 19.32 nmol/L and 5.01 ± 1.24 nmol/L, respectively. The value of Kd for insulin-MTX was significantly increased in comparison with insulin (t = 7.2532, n = 4, P < 0.005). Insulin-MTX inhibited the growth of human hepatoma cells (BEL7402) almost as potently as MTX. The inhibitory effect reached a peak on the 5 th day when the growth of cells was inhibited by 79% at a concentration of 5.0 μg/mL insulin-MTX. Treatment with 5.0 μg/mL of MTX and 5.0 μg/mL of insulin-MTX merely resulted in inhibition of HL7702 cells by 31.5% and 7.8% on the 5 th day.

CONCLUSION: Insulin-MTX specifically recognizes insulin receptors and inhibits the growth of BEL7402 cells. These results suggest that insulin can be used as a carrier in receptor mediated carcinoma-targeting therapy.

Targeted gene delivery into HepG2 cells using complexes containing DNA, cationized asialoorosomucoid and activated cationic liposomes

Unilamellar activated cationic liposomes containing 3beta[N-(N',N'-dimethylaminopropane)-carbamoyl] cholesterol, dioleoyl phosphatidylethanolamine (DOPE) and the N-hydroxysuccinimide ester of cholesteryl hemisuccinate (4:5:1, molar ratio) have been prepared and their DNA-binding capacity has been assessed in a gel retardation assay. Ternary complexes composed of activated cationic liposomes, carbodiimide-cationized asialoorosomucoid (Me+AOM) and pRSVL plasmid DNA were assembled for receptor-mediated DNA delivery into cells expressing the asialoglycoprotein receptor (ASGP-R). Binding of complexes in which Me+AOM was replaced by fluoresceinated Me+AOM (FMe+AOM) to the human hepatocellular cell line HepG2 at 4 degrees C was severely reduced by co-incubation with asialoorosomucoid (AOM). Moreover, assemblies containing liposomes, pRSVL DNA and Me+AOM (8:1:4, w/w/w) promoted high levels of luciferase activity in this cell line (1.3 x 10(7) relative light units/mg soluble cell protein). Assays conducted in the presence of a hundred-fold excess of the ligand AOM afforded considerably lower levels of transfection (2.5 x 10(5) relative light units/mg soluble cell protein). In contrast, the highest level of luciferase activity achieved with liposome, pRSVL DNA, AOM complexes was only a quarter of the best levels obtained with liposome, pRSVL DNA, Me+AOM assemblies. These findings strongly support the notion that complexes gain entry into hepatocyte-derived cells by ASGP-R mediation and that they are potentially useful gene carriers to liver hepatocytes.

Design of attachment type of drug delivery system by complex formation of avidin with biotinyl drug model and biotinyl saccharide

Recent studies have focused on the active targeting of drug delivery by combining a homing device and antitumor drug. For this purpose, synthesis of a well-designed vehicle (such as polymer/drug conjugates or nanoparticles) carrying a drug and a homing device requires many steps. We propose a new type of drug delivery system (DDS) by formation of a complex containing avidin (Av) plus biotinyl drug with a biotinyl homing device, which easily accommodates the combination of various drugs and homing devices. The targetable drug complex can be prepared by selecting an appropriate biotinyl drug derivative and a biotinyl homing device and mixing them with avidin. Fluorescent dye with 5-(and-6)-carboxytetramethylrhodamine (TAMRA) was used as a drug model, and galactose (Gal) recognized by liver parenchymal cells was used as a homing device. TAMRA and galactose were attached to biotin (Bio) through a triethyleneglycol (TEG) spacer group to give Bio-TEG-TAMRA conjugate and Bio-TEG-Gal conjugate, respectively. Confocal laser scanning microscopic studies suggest that the complexes prepared by mixing Bio-TEG-Gal conjugate and fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled Av (feed molar ratio 4:1), and mixing Bio-TEG-Gal conjugate, Bio-TEG-TAMRA conjugate and FITC-labeled Av are internalized into the hepatoma cells through a receptor-mediated endocytosis mechanism.

Failure to generate atheroprotective apolipoprotein AI phenotypes using synthetic RNA/DNA oligonucleotides (chimeraplasts)

BACKGROUND

Elevated plasma high-density lipoprotein (HDL), and its major constituent apolipoprotein AI (apoAI), are cardioprotective. Paradoxically, two natural variants of apoAI, termed apoAI(Milano) and apoAI(Paris), are associated with low HDL, but nevertheless provide remarkable protection against heart disease for heterozygous carriers and may even lead to longevity. Both variants arise from point mutations and have Arg(173) and Arg(151) to Cys substitutions, respectively, which allow disulphide-linked dimers to form. Potentially, synthetic RNA/DNA oligonucleotides (chimeraplasts) can permanently correct single point mutations in genomic DNA. Here, we use a variation of such targeted gene repair technology, 'gain-of-function chimeraplasty', and attempt to enhance the biological activity of apoAI by altering a single genomic base to generate the atheroprotective phenotypes, apoAI(Milano) and apoAI(Paris).

METHODS

We targeted two cultured cell lines that secrete human apoAI, hepatoblastoma HepG2 cells and recombinant CHO-AI cells, using standard 68-mer chimeraplasts with polyethyleneimine (PEI) as carrier and then systematically varied several experimental conditions. As a positive control we targeted the dysfunctional APOE2 gene, which we have previously converted to wild-type APOE3.

RESULTS

Conversion of wild-type apoAI to apoAI(Milano) proved refractory, with limited correction in CHO-AI cells only. However, a successful conversion to apoAI(Paris) was achieved, as demonstrated by polymerase chain reaction-restriction fragment length polymorphism (PCR-RFLP) analysis and direct genomic sequencing. Unexpectedly, attempts with a new batch of 68-mer chimeraplast to enhance conversion, by using different delivery vehicles, including chemically modified PEI, failed to show a base change; nor could conversion be detected with an 80-mer or a 52-76-mer series. In contrast, when a co-culture of CHO-E2 and CHO-AI cells was co-targeted, a clear conversion of apoE2 to apoE3 was seen, whereas no apoAI(Paris) could be detected. When the individual chimeraplasts were analysed by denaturing electrophoresis only the active apoE2-to-E3 chimeraplast gave a sharp band.

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings suggest that different batches of chimeraplasts have variable characteristics and that their quality may be a key factor for efficient targeting and/or base conversion. We conclude that, although an evolving technology with enormous potential, chimeraplast-directed gene repair remains problematical.