Expanding the 43C9 class of catalytic antibodies using a chain-shuffling approach

The origin of genetic and metabolic systems: Evolutionary structuralinsights

DNA is derived from reverse transcription and its origin is related to reverse transcriptase, DNA polymerase and integrase. The gene structure originated from the evolution of the first RNA polymerase. Thus, an explanation of the origin of the genetic system must also explain the evolution of these enzymes. This paper proposes a polymer structure model, termed the stable complex evolution model, which explains the evolution of enzymes and functional molecules. Enzymes evolved their functions by forming locally tightly packed complexes with specific substrates. A metabolic reaction can therefore be considered to be the result of adaptive evolution in this way when a certain essential molecule is lacking in a cell. The evolution of the primitive genetic and metabolic systems was thus coordinated and synchronized. According to the stable complex model, almost all functional molecules establish binding affinity and specific recognition through complementary interactions, and functional molecules therefore have the nature of being auto-reactive. This is thermodynamically favorable and leads to functional duplication and self-organization. Therefore, it can be speculated that biological systems have a certain tendency to maintain functional stability or are influenced by an inherent selective power. The evolution of dormant bacteria may support this hypothesis, and inherent selectivity can be unified with natural selection at the molecular level.

Molecular mechanism of enantioselective proton transfer to carbon in catalytic antibody 14D9

Catalytic antibody 14D9 catalyzes the enantioselective protonation of prochiral enol ethers with high enantioselectivity (>99% ee) and a practical turnover (k(cat) = 0.4 s(-1)), allowing for preparative scale applications. This antibody represents one of the rare examples of catalytic antibodies promoting acid-catalyzed processes. Antibody 14D9 was cloned and expressed as a chimeric Fab fragment in Escherichia coli. Crystal structures of Fab 14D9 as apo form and of its close analog 19C9 in complex with the transition state analog were determined at 2.8-A resolution. A series of site-directed mutagenesis experiments was carried out to probe the role of individual active-site amino acids. Proton transfer to carbon is catalyzed by a hydrogen bond network formed by the side chains of Asp(H101) and Tyr(L36) with a water molecule serving as a relay. The intermediate oxocarbonium ion formed during the protonation step is trapped by the same water molecule, resulting in an overall syn-addition of water to the enol ether's double bond. The enantioselectivity is caused by steric crowding at the active site, mainly because of the side chain of Phe(H84). The 20-fold lower activity of 19C9 compared with 14D9 was traced down to residue Thr(L46), which forms a nonproductive hydrogen bond with the catalytic residue Asp(H101), which competes with the critical Asp(H101)-Tyr(L36) hydrogen bond and therefore reduces catalytic efficiency. The catalytic activity of 19C9 was restored to that of 14D9 by using either site-directed mutagenesis (Thr(L46)Ala) or chain shuffling.

Transition state docking: a probe for noncovalent catalysis in biological systems. Application to antibody-catalyzed ester hydrolysis

A strategy for pinpointing favorable noncovalent interactions between transition states and active sites of biological catalysts is described. This strategy combines high-level quantum mechanical calculations of transition state geometries with an automated docking procedure using AutoDock. By applying this methodology to antibody-catalyzed hydrolyses of aryl esters (by the 48G7, CNJ206, and 17E8 families of antibodies), varying levels of catalysis are explained in terms of specific hydrogen bonding interactions between combining site residues and transition states. Although these families of antibodies were produced in separate experiments by different researchers using related but different haptens, the mechanism of transition state stabilization appears to be highly conserved. Despite being elicited in response to anionic phosphonate haptens, the best catalysts often utilize hydrogen bond acceptors to stabilize transition states. A mutant of antibody CNJ206, designed based on this observation and predicted to be a better catalyst, is proposed. In the case of antibody 48G7, affinity maturation is shown to produce a catalyst that is highly selective for one of two enantiomeric transition states from a nonselective germline precursor.

Canonical binding arrays as molecular recognition elements in the immune system: tetrahedral anions and the ester hydrolysis transition state

The structures, obtained by X-ray crystallography, of the binding sites of catalytic antibodies raised to bind different phosphonates are compared. Although the amino acid sequences differ, all exhibit a tetrahedral array of hydrogen bond donors (a 'canonical binding array') complementary to the tetrahedral anion, which represents a 'transition state epitope' for the basic hydrolysis of esters and amides. Antibodies for phosphates, arsonates, and sulfonates are found also to possess the tetrahedral anion canonical binding array.

Critical analysis of antibody catalysis

Antibody molecules elicited with rationally designed transition-state analogs catalyze numerous reactions, including many that cannot be achieved by standard chemical methods. Although relatively primitive when compared with natural enzymes, these catalysts are valuable tools for probing the origins and evolution of biological catalysis. Mechanistic and structural analyses of representative antibody catalysts, generated with a variety of strategies for several different reaction types, suggest that their modest efficiency is a consequence of imperfect hapten design and indirect selection. Development of improved transition-state analogs, refinements in immunization and screening protocols, and elaboration of general strategies for augmenting the efficiency of first-generation catalytic antibodies are identified as evident, but difficult, challenges for this field. Rising to these challenges and more successfully integrating programmable design with the selective forces of biology will enhance our understanding of enzymatic catalysis. Further, it should yield useful protein catalysts for an enhanced range of practical applications in chemistry and biology.