Endoscopic drainage of pancreatic fluid collections and pancreatic necrosis

Transgastric drainage for subdiaphragmatic abscess secondary to perforation of the sigmoid colon after cytoreductive surgery for advanced ovarian cancer

Drainage of subdiaphragmatic abscesses is difficult due to its anatomical location and it can result in adverse events, including organ damage and the spread of infection. In recent years, endoscopic ultrasonography (EUS) guided drainage for upper abdominal abscesses has become available. We report a case of successful infection control using this procedure for a subdiaphragmatic cyst secondary to perforation of the sigmoid colon after cytoreductive surgery for advanced ovarian cancer. A Japanese woman in her 60s underwent laparotomy for ovarian cancer, and then developed sigmoid colon perforation 6 days after surgery. The emergency reoperation was performed, and a cyst suspected to be an antibiotic-resistant fungal abscess appeared under the left diaphragm in the postoperative period. We adopted an EUS-guided route for diagnostic and therapeutic drainage method, which enabled shrinkage of the cyst and did not concur further adverse events. This procedure was effective as a minimally invasive drainage route for subdiaphragmatic cysts.

Severe, Complicated Pancreatitis With an Unclear Etiology

Acute pancreatitis is an inflammatory process. There can be many causes of pancreatitis, which include alcohol or gallstones but can also be due to hypercalcemia, infections, or hypertriglyceridemia. Most cases of pancreatitis are mild and without complications. Severe cases of pancreatitis can cause complications, including organ failure. Pseudocysts are a rare complication of pancreatitis and may require management. We present a patient with severe acute pancreatitis with organ failure admitted to the intensive care unit, stabilized, and required subsequent management of a pseudocyst with cystogastrostomy with a lumen-apposing metal stent. The patient subsequently improved and is doing well today. Herein, we present an acute severe pancreatitis case report with an extensive workup complicated by pseudocyst development. We review pancreatitis causes, including rare causes and management.

Endoscopic management of pancreatic fluid collections with disconnected pancreatic duct syndrome

Disconnected pancreatic duct syndrome (DPDS) is an important and common complication of acute necrotizing pancreatitis. Endoscopic approach has been established as the first-line treatment for pancreatic fluid collections (PFCs) with less invasion and satisfactory outcome. However, the presence of DPDS significantly complicates the management of PFC; besides, there is no standardized treatment for DPDS. The diagnosis of DPDS presents the first step of management, which can be preliminarily established by imaging methods including contrast-enhanced computed tomography, ERCP, magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP), and EUS. Historically, ERCP is considered as the gold standard for the diagnosis of DPDS, and secretin-enhanced MRCP is recommended as an appropriate diagnostic method in existing guidelines. With the development of endoscopic techniques and accessories, the endoscopic approach, mainly including transpapillary and transmural drainage, has been developed as the preferred treatment over percutaneous drainage and surgery for the management of PFC with DPDS. Many studies concerning various endoscopic treatment strategies have been published, especially in the recent 5 years. Nonetheless, existing current literature has reported inconsistent and confusing results. In this article, the latest evidence is summarized to explore the optimal endoscopic management of PFC with DPDS.

Pancreatic duct stents

Pancreatic duct stenting using endoscopy or surgery is widely used for the management of benign and malignant pancreatic diseases. Endoscopic pancreatic stents are mainly used to relieve pain caused by chronic pancreatitis and pancreas divisum, and to treat pancreatic duct disruption and stenotic pancreaticointestinal anastomosis after surgery. They are also used to prevent postendoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography pancreatitis and postoperative pancreatic fistula, treat pancreatic cancer, and locate radiolucent stones. Recent advances in endoscopic techniques, such as endoscopic ultrasonography and balloon enteroscopy, and newly designed stents have broadened the indications for pancreatic duct stenting. In this review we outlined the types, insertion procedures, efficacy, and complications of endoscopic pancreatic duct stent placement, and summarized the applications of pancreatic duct stents in surgery.

Outcomes and predictors of response to endotherapy in pancreatic ductal disruptions with refractory internal and high-output external fistulae

Backgrounds/Aims

Endoscopic retrograde cholangiopancreatography (ERCP) remains the primary treatment for a subset of patients with pancreatic fistulae. The objective of this study was reporting outcomes of ERCP and predictors of resolution in patients with pancreatic fistulae refractory to conservative therapy.

Methods

Retrospective review of patients who underwent ERCP and pancreatic stent placement for pancreatic fistula not responding to medical therapy was performed. Clinical features, laboratory parameters, radiological features and pancreatogram findings were noted. Clinical resolution of fistula was the primary outcome measure.

Results

Sixty-eight patients underwent ERCP for high-output pancreatic fistula (Mean age 34.1 years, 91.1% males, 35/68 chronic pancreatitis, 52.9% alcohol etiology). Internal fistulae (pancreatic ascites, pleural effusion, or pericardial effusion) were seen in 55 (80.9%) patients and external fistula in 13 (19.1%) patients. Technical success for ERCP was 92.6% (63/68). Leak was seen in 98.4% (62/63). The most common leak site was body (69.8%). Multiple leak sites were seen in 23.1%. Pancreatic stricture was found in 36.5%. In 44 (69.4%) patients, stent was placed beyond the site of the leak. Resolution at six weeks was achieved in 76.4% (52/68). On univariate and multivariate analyses, placement of stent beyond site of leak was significantly associated with resolution of high-output fistulae (3/41 [7.3%] vs. 5/19 [26.3%], p = 0.03; odds ratio: 6.5, 95% confidence interval: 1.211-34.94).

Conclusions

In our experience, ERCP was successful in 76% of patients with pancreatic fistulae refractory to conservative therapy. Stent placement beyond the site of leak was associated with higher resolution of fistulae.

Management of pancreatic fluid collections

Pancreatic fluid collections often develop as a complication of acute pancreatitis but can be seen in a variety of conditions including chronic pancreatitis, trauma, malignancy or post-operatively. It is important to classify a pancreatic fluid collection in order to optimize treatment strategies and management. Most interventions are targeted towards the management of delayed complications of pancreatitis, including pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off necrosis (WON), which often develop days to weeks after the initial episode of pancreatitis. Surgical, percutaneous, and endoscopic interventions are all possible methods for treatment of pancreatic fluid collections, however endoscopic drainage with endoscopic ultrasound has become first-line. Advances within endoscopic drainage strategies have also led to innovative changes in the specific stents used for treatment, with possible options including double pigtail plastic stents, fully covered self-expanding metal stents and lumen-apposing metal stents (LAMS).

Pancreatic fluid collections: Clinical manifestations, diagnostic evaluation and management

Pancreatic fluid collections (PFC), including pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off pancreatic necrosis, are a known complication of severe acute pancreatitis. A majority of the PFCs remain asymptomatic and resolve spontaneously. However, some PFCs persist and can become symptomatic. Persistent PFCs can also cause further complications such as the gastric outlet, intestinal, or biliary obstruction and infection. Surgical interventions are indicated for the drainage of symptomatic sterile and infected PFCs. Management of PFCs has evolved from a primarily surgical or percutaneous approach to a less invasive endoscopic approach. Endoscopic interventions are associated with improved outcomes with lesser chances of complications, faster recovery time, and lower healthcare utilization. Endoscopic ultrasound-guided drainage of PFCs using lumen-apposing metal stents has become the preferred approach for the management of symptomatic and complicated PFCs.

Endoscopic management of pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off pancreatic necrosis: A two-decade experience

AIM

To determine long-term outcome of endoscopic management of pancreatic pseudocyst/walled-off pancreatic necrosis (WOPN) without necrosectomy.

METHODS

One-hundred and sixty-five pancreatic pseudocysts/WOPN managed endoscopically over a period of 22 years were analyzed retrospectively for technical success, complications, and recurrence.

RESULTS

Symptomatic 118 males and 47 females with mean age of 35.8 years were included. Alcohol was the most common etiology (41.2%). Transmural endoscopic drainage was done in 144 patients, while 21 patients underwent transpapillary drainage. All the patients were subjected to contrast computed tomography (CT) abdomen or routine/Doppler ultrasound. Endoscopic ultrasound was done in last 11 patients. One or two double pigtail 7 Fr stents were placed when clear watery fluid came out from cyst (130 patients, 78.8%), and nasocystic drainage (NCD) tubes were placed in addition to two 7 Fr stents when there were frank pus, thick dark fluid, or solid components inside the cyst (35 patients). All these patients settled on this treatment. Thirty-three of 35 patients of WOPN could be managed endoscopically without necrosectomy. Complications occurred in 9.2% of pseudocysts and 40% of WOPN. Thirty-five patients were followed up for more than 5 years (3 patients more than 10 years), and 130 patients were followed up for up to 5 years. Recurrence occurred in 8.1% of pseudocysts and 5.7% of WOPN.

CONCLUSION

Majority of pancreatic pseudocysts/WOPN can be managed with endoscopic drainage without necrosectomy with high success, low complication, and recurrence rates.

Therapeutic role of endoscopic ultrasound in pancreaticobiliary disease: A comprehensive review

With the development of technology and accessories, the role of endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) has evolved from diagnostics to therapeutics. In order to characterise the therapeutic role of EUS, we searched Web of Knowledge database and reviewed articles associated with therapeutic EUS. There are two modalities for the therapeutic purpose: drainage and fine-needle injection. EUS-guided drainage is a promising procedure for the treatment of peripancreatic fluid collection and biliary obstruction; EUS-guided fine-needle injections such as celiac plexus neurolysis, for the purpose of pain relief for pancreatic cancer and chronic pancreatitis, has emerged as a promising procedure. The aim of the study was to perform a comprehensive and conscientious review on the techniques, complications and clinical outcomes of those EUS-based procedures.

Single-step versus 2-step management of huge pancreatic pseudocysts: a prospective randomized trial with long-term follow-up

OBJECTIVES

Single-step endoscopic ultrasonography-guided puncture through the stomach to insert a double-pigtail stent to drain a pseudocyst usually resulted in a high infection rate. The 2-step method, which combines the single-step method with a nasocystic drain, was created to help alleviate infections. Our study compared the 2 management strategies.

METHODS

Between January 2007 and December 2011, patients with huge pancreatic pseudocysts were randomized into either a single-step or a 2-step treatment. Complications from infections and long-term results assessed during follow-up for the 2 groups were compared.

RESULTS

Forty-seven patients were enrolled-23 in the single-step group and 24 in the 2-step group. There were significant differences in the infection rates (56.52 vs 20.83, P < 0.05), the average days of hospitalization (22.96 ± 2.82 days vs 10.38 ± 1.35 days, P < 0.05), postoperative hospital stay (15.31 ± 3.82 days vs 7.21 ± 1.61 days, P < 0.05), and the disappearance time of the pseudocyst (14.10 ± 2.33 weeks vs 11.70 ± 2.21 weeks, P < 0.05) between the 2 groups; however, there was no significant difference in the pseudocyst recurrence rate.

CONCLUSIONS

The preferred treatment of a huge pancreatic pseudocyst is a combined endoscopic ultrasonography method using 2 double-pigtail stents and a nasocystic drain.

Endoscopic therapy of necrotizing pancreatitis and pseudocysts

Endoscopic therapy has become an essential component in the management of postpancreatitis complications, such as infected and/or symptomatic pancreatic pseudocysts and walled-off necrosis. However, although there have been 2 recent randomized, controlled trials performed, a general lack of comparative effectiveness data regarding the timing, indications, and outcomes of these procedures has been a barrier to the development of practice standards for therapeutic endoscopists managing these issues. This article reviews the available data and expert consensus regarding indications for endoscopic intervention, timing of procedures, endoscopic technique, periprocedural considerations, and complications.

Endoscopic therapy for pancreatic duct leaks and disruptions

Pancreatitis, whether acute or chronic, can lead to a plethora of complications, such as fluid collections, pseudocysts, fistulas, and necrosis, all of which are secondary to leakage of secretions from the pancreatic ductal system. Partial and side branch duct disruptions can be managed successfully by transpapillary pancreatic duct stent placement, whereas patients with disconnected pancreatic duct syndrome require more complex endoscopic interventions or multidisciplinary care for optimal treatment outcomes. This review discusses the current status of endoscopic management of pancreatic duct leaks and emerging concepts for the treatment of disconnected pancreatic duct syndrome.

Combined EUS-Guided Abdominal Cavity Drainage and Cystogastrostomy for the Ruptured Pancreatic Pseudocyst

Background. Endoscopic-Ultrasonography- (EUS-) guided puncture and drainage of pancreatic pseudocyst is currently one of the most widely accepted nonsurgical treatments. To date, this technique has only been used for pancreatic pseudocysts adhesive to the gastric wall. This study introduces the technique of EUS-guided pseudocyst drainage and additional EUS-guided peritoneal drainage for the ruptured pseudocyst. Methods. Transmural puncture and drainage of the cyst were performed with a 19 G needle, cystotome, and 10 Fr endoprosthesis. Intraperitoneal drainage was performed with a nasobiliary catheter when rupture of pseudocyst occurred. The entire procedure was guided by the echoendoscope. Results. A total of 21 patients, 8 men and 13 women, with a mean age of 36 years, were included in this prospective study. All of the pseudocysts were successfully drained by EUS. Peritoneal drainage was uneventfully performed in 4 patients. There were no severe complications. Complete pseudocyst resolution was established in all patients. Conclusion. The technique of EUS-guided transmural puncture and drainage, when combined with abdominal cavity drainage by a nasobiliary catheter, allows successful endoscopic management of pancreatic pseudocysts without adherence to gastric wall.

Endoscopic ultrasound-guided versus conventional transmural techniques have comparable treatment outcomes in draining pancreatic pseudocysts

We carried out the first meta-analysis comparing the technical success and clinical outcomes of endoscopic ultrasound-guided drainage (EUD) and conventional transmural drainage (CTD) for pancreatic pseudocysts. We searched PubMed, Embase, Scopus, and the Cochrane library to identify relevant prospective trials. The technical success rate, short-term (4-6 weeks) success, and long-term (at 6 months) success in symptoms and the radiologic resolution of pseudocysts, complication rates, and death rates were compared. Two eligible randomized-controlled trials and two prospective studies including 229 patients were retrieved. The technical success rate was significantly higher for EUD than for CTD [risk ratio (RR)=12.38, 95% confidence interval (CI): 1.39-110.22]. When CTD failed because of the nonbulging nature of pseudocysts, a crossover was carried out to EUD (n=18), which was successfully performed in all these cases. All patients with portal hypertension and bleeding tendency were subjected to EUD to avoid severe complications. EUD was not superior to CTD in terms of short-term success (RR=1.03, 95% CI: 0.95-1.11) or long-term success (RR=0.98, 95% CI: 0.76-1.25). The overall complications were similar in both groups (RR=0.98, 95% CI: 0.52-1.86). The most common complications were bleeding and infection. There were two deaths from bleeding after CTD. The short-term and long-term treatment success of both methods is comparable only if proper drainage modality is selected in specific clinical situations. For bulging pseudocysts, either EUD or CTD can be selected whereas EUD is the treatment of choice for nonbulging pseudocysts, portal hypertension, or coagulopathy.

Outcome and complications of endoscopic ultrasound guided pancreatic pseudocyst drainage using combined endoprosthesis and naso-cystic drain

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Endoscopic ultrasound guided pancreatic pseudocyst drainage (EUS-PPD) is increasingly being used for management of pancreatic pseudocysts. We evaluated the outcome and complications of EUS-PPD with modified combined technique by inserting both endoprosthesis and naso-cystic drain.

METHODS

Forty patients referred between August 2007 and January 2010 for EUS-PPD were prospectively studied. EUS-PPD was attempted for symptomatic pancreatic pseudocysts which were; (i) resistant to conservative treatment, (ii) in contact with the gastric or duodenal wall on EUS and (iii) having no bulge seen on endoscopy. Controlled radial expansion wire guided balloon dilation of the puncture tract was performed followed by insertion of a 10 French double pigtail stent and 7-Fr naso-biliary drain. The early and late outcome and complications of EUS-PPD were analyzed.

RESULTS

Thirty-two patients had non-infected and eight had infected pseudocysts. EUS-PPD was technically successful in all. Pseudocysts resolved completely in 39 patients, while one with infected pseudocyst underwent surgical resection for bleeding in the cyst. Naso-cystic drain was removed in 39 patients after median duration of 13 days. Thereafter, the double pigtail stent was removed in all cases after median duration of 10 weeks. Pseudocyst recurred in one patient requiring a second session of EUS-PPD. All 32 patients without cystic infection were successfully treated by EUS-PPD. Seven out of eight patients (87%) with cystic infection were successfully treated by EUS-PPD.

CONCLUSION

Endoscopic ultrasound guided pancreatic pseudocyst drainage with modified combined technique is safe and is associated with high success rate.

Fluid collections in and around the pancreas in acute pancreatitis

The advent of computed tomographic scan with its wide use in the evaluation of acute pancreatitis has opened up a new topic in pancreatology i.e. fluid collections. Fluid collections in and around the pancreas occur often in acute pancreatitis and were defined by the Atlanta Symposium on Acute Pancreatitis in 1992. Two decades since the Atlanta Conference additional experience has brought to light the inadequacy and poor understanding of the terms used by different specialists involved in the care of patients with acute pancreatitis when interpreting imaging modalities and the need for a uniformly used classification system. The deficiencies of the Atlanta definitions and advances in medicine have led to a proposed revision of the Atlanta classification promulgated by the Acute Pancreatitis Classification Working Group. The newly used terms "acute peripancreatic fluid collections," "pancreatic pseudocyst," "postnecrotic pancreatic/peripancreatic fluid collections," and "walled-off pancreatic necrosis" are to be clearly understood in the interpretation of imaging studies. The current treatment methods for fluid collections are diverse and depend on accurate interpretations of radiologic tests. Management options include conservative treatment, percutaneous catheter drainage, open and laparoscopic surgery, and endoscopic drainage. The choice of treatment depends on a correct diagnosis of the type of fluid collection. In this study we have attempted to clarify the management and clinical features of different types of fluid collections as they have been initially defined under the 1992 Atlanta Classification and revised by the Working Group's proposed categorization.

Acute pancreatitis

Acute pancreatitis is a common disease most frequently caused by gallstone disease or excess alcohol ingestion. Diagnosis is usually based on characteristic symptoms, often in conjunction with elevated serum pancreatic enzymes. Imaging is not always necessary, but may be performed for many reasons, such as to confirm a diagnosis of pancreatitis, rule out other causes of abdominal pain, elucidate the cause of pancreatitis, or to evaluate for complications such as necrosis or pseudocysts. Though the majority of patients will have mild, self-limiting disease, some will develop severe disease associated with organ failure. These patients are at risk to develop complications from ongoing pancreatic inflammation such as pancreatic necrosis, fluid collections, pseudocysts, and pancreatic duct disruption. Validated scoring systems can help predict the severity of pancreatitis, and thus, guide monitoring and intervention.Treatment of acute pancreatitis involves supportive care with fluid replacement, pain control, and controlled initiation of regular food intake. Prophylactic antibiotics are not recommended in acute pancreatitis if there is no evidence of pancreatic infection. In patients who fail to improve, further evaluation is necessary to assess for complications that require intervention such as pseudocysts or pancreatic necrosis. Endoscopy, including ERCP and EUS, and/or cholecystectomy may be indicated in the appropriate clinical setting. Ultimately, the management of the patient with severe acute pancreatitis will require a multidisciplinary approach.

Endoscopic approach to pancreatic pseudocysts: An American perspective

Pancreatic pseudocysts, abscesses, and walled-off pancreatic necrosis are types of pancreatic fluid collections that arise as a consequence of pancreatic injury. Pain, early satiety, biliary obstruction, and infection are all indications for drainage. Percutaneous-radiologic drainage, surgical drainage, and endoscopic drainage are the three traditional approaches to the drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts. The endoscopic approach to pancreatic pseudocysts has evolved over the past thirty years and endoscopists are often capable of draining these collections. In experienced centers endoscopic ultrasound-guided endoscopic drainage avoids complications related to percutaneous drainage and is less invasive than surgery.

EUS-guided cholecystoenterostomy with single-step placement of a 7F double-pigtail plastic stent in patients who are unsuitable for cholecystectomy: a pilot study (with video)

BACKGROUND

Although the definitive therapy of acute cholecystitis is cholecystectomy, nonsurgical treatment such as percutaneous cholecystostomy could be indicated in patients who are unsuitable candidates for cholecystectomy. EUS-guided cholecystoenterostomy with a plastic stent and/or nasobiliary drainage has been proposed as an alternative effective treatment for these patients.

OBJECTIVE

We conducted this study to evaluate the technical feasibility, safety, usefulness, and follow-up results of EUS-guided cholecystoenterostomy with single-step placement of a plastic stent for patients with acute cholecystitis who are unsuitable candidates for cholecystectomy.

DESIGN

A prospective feasibility study with a case series.

SETTING

Tertiary teaching hospital.

PATIENTS

Eight consecutive patients diagnosed with acute cholecystitis who were poor candidates for surgery.

INTERVENTIONS

EUS-guided cholecystoenterostomy with single-step placement of a 7F double-pigtail plastic stent.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Technical success, clinical resolution of acute cholecystitis, procedure-related complications, and recurrence of cholecystitis.

RESULTS

Technical success and clinical resolution were achieved in all patients (100% [8/8] as intent to treat). A transduodenal approach was used for 7 patients and a transgastric approach for 1 patient. One patient showed self-limited pneumoperitoneum, and bile peritonitis occurred in 1 patient. One patient showed distal stent migration without bile leakage 3 weeks after stent insertion. During follow-up periods (median 186 days; range 22-300 days), cholecystitis did not recur in any patients.

LIMITATIONS

Small number of patients.

CONCLUSION

EUS-guided cholecystoenterostomy with single-step placement of a 7F double-pigtail plastic stent may be a feasible and useful alternative in patients with acute cholecystitis who are unsuitable candidates for cholecystectomy.

Natural Orifice Trans-Luminal Endoscopic Surgery in the esophagus

As limited as are the studies regarding peritoneal Natural Orifice Trans-Luminal Endoscopic Surgery, mediastinal transluminal experiments are certainly in their infancy. The authors evaluate the parallel development of minimally invasive thoracic surgery with regard to its counterpart in peritoneal laparoscopy to NOTES. Transesophageal interventions by both endosonographic and direct visualization are examined in the context of minimally invasive surgery and mediastinal NOTES. Techniques of viscerotomy creation, visualization, and closure are examined with particular emphasis on mediastinal structures. The state of current interventions is examined. Finally, current morbidity (including infectious complications) and survival outcomes are examined in those animals that have undergone transesophageal exploration.

A comparison of direct endoscopic necrosectomy with transmural endoscopic drainage for the treatment of walled-off pancreatic necrosis

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic therapy of walled-off pancreatic necrosis (WOPN) via direct intracavitary debridement is described.

OBJECTIVE

To compare direct endoscopic necrosectomy with conventional transmural endoscopic drainage for the treatment of WOPN.

DESIGN

Retrospective, comparative study.

SETTING

Academic tertiary-care center.

PATIENTS

Patients referred to Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota, since April 1998 for endoscopic drainage of WOPN.

INTERVENTIONS

Each patient underwent standard endoscopic drainage that consisted of transmural cavity puncture, dilation of the fistula tract, and placement of a large-bore stent(s). Patients were classified into the direct endoscopic necrosectomy group if, during any of their procedures, adjunctive direct endoscopic necrosectomy was performed; all others were in the standard drainage group.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENTS

Success was defined as resolution of the necrotic cavity without the need for operative or percutaneous intervention.

RESULTS

Forty-five patients were identified who met study criteria: 25 underwent direct endoscopic necrosectomy, and 20 underwent standard endoscopic drainage. There were no differences in baseline patient or cavity characteristics. Successful resolution was accomplished in 88% who underwent direct endoscopic necrosectomy versus 45% who received standard drainage (P < .01), without a change in the total number of procedures. The maximum size of tract dilation was larger in the direct endoscopic necrosectomy group (17 mm vs 14 mm, P < .02). Complications were limited to mild periprocedural bleeding with equivalent rates between groups.

LIMITATIONS

Retrospective, referral bias, single center.

CONCLUSIONS

Direct endoscopic necrosectomy achieves higher rates of resolution, without a concomitant change in the number of endoscopic procedures, complication rate, or time to resolution compared with standard endoscopic drainage for WOPN. The need for fewer postprocedural inpatient hospital days and a decrease in the rate of cavity recurrence are also likely benefits of this technique.

Endoscopic Ultrasound-guided drainage of an abdominal fluid collection following Whipple’s resection

Percutaneous aspiration and drainage of post-operative abdominal fluid collections is a well established standard technique. However, some fluid collections are not amenable to percutaneous drainage either due to location or the presence of surrounding visceral structures. Endoscopic Ultrasound (EUS) has been widely used for the drainage of pancreatitis-related abdominal fluid collections. However, there are no reports on the use of this technique in the post-operative setting. We report a case where the EUS-guided technique was used to drain a percutaneously inaccessible post-operative collection which had developed after Whipple’s resection.

Use of a novel transluminal balloon accessotome in transmural drainage of pancreatic pseudocyst (with video)

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic transmural pseudocyst drainage is a multistep procedure.

OBJECTIVE

Our purpose was evaluation of a new device, the transluminal balloon accessotome (TBA) in transmural drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts.

DESIGN

Case series.

SETTING

Subspecialty tertiary care center.

PATIENTS AND INTERVENTIONS

Between September and October 2007, all consecutive patients with symptomatic pancreatic pseudocysts in whom TBA was used for pseudocyst drainage were included. Through a therapeutic duodenoscope, the pseudocyst was punctured with the needle-knife of the TBA at the point of maximal bulge. After the cyst cavity was entered, the needle-knife and the handle of the TBA device were withdrawn and a 0.035-inch guidewire was passed into the cavity. The tract was dilated with the inflatable balloon of the TBA device, and a 10F double-pigtail was inserted.

RESULTS

Six patients, all male, median age 35 years, underwent transmural pancreatic pseudocyst drainage with TBA during this period. All procedures were completed successfully. There were no major complications during or after the procedure except for fever in 1 patient, which responded to parenteral antibiotics. At 6-week follow-up, the pseudocyst cavity had completely collapsed, and stents could be extracted in all patients.

LIMITATIONS

Single-center experience, small sample size.

CONCLUSIONS

TBA is a safe, useful, and easy-to-use device for transmural drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts.

Clinical usefulness of a treatment algorithm for pancreatic pseudocysts

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic procedures have become a first-line approach to the treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts.

OBJECTIVE

Our purpose was to determine the results of a therapeutic algorithm including EUS-assisted drainage, transpapillary drainage, and conventional endoscopic drainage in terms of (1) feasibility and efficacy of the endoscopic procedure and (2) morbidity.

DESIGN

Prospective study with a treatment algorithm drawn up before the endoscopic procedure, including either conventional endoscopic transmural drainage (CTMD), conventional transpapillary drainage (CTPD), or EUS-guided transmural drainage (EUS-GTD).

PATIENTS

A total of 50 patients, including 15 women and 35 men with a mean age of 51 years, were included in this prospective study.

RESULTS

The mean size of the pseudocysts was 8.2 cm (range 3-12 cm). A total of 29 pseudocysts did not bulge into the digestive wall (58%); 24 (48%) neither bulged nor communicated with the pancreatic duct. EUS-GTD was performed on 28 patients (56%), CTMD on 13 patients (26%), and CTPD on 8 patients (16%), and endoscopic procedures failed in 1 patient. Technical feasibility was 98% (49/50), and clinical success was achieved in 90% of the cases and disappearance of the pseudocysts in 96% of the cases without significant differences among the 3 groups. The morbidity rate was 18% (9 cases). Five superinfections occurred in the EUS-GTD group and 1 in the CTMD group. One death occurred from late bleeding in the CTMD group.

LIMITATION

Randomization of patients in this prospective study was not possible because of the different characteristics of the pseudocysts.

CONCLUSION

With this algorithm, clinical success was achieved in 45 (90%) of the cases and disappearance of the pseudocysts in 48 (96%) of the cases with a reasonable morbidity rate. In half of the cases, EUS is required for treating pancreatic pseudocyst.

Endoscopic drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts

Pancreatic pseudocysts arise as a complication of acute and chronic pancreatitis, pancreatic trauma, or after surgery. Endoscopic treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts can be achieved using transpapillary and/or transmural (transgastric or transduodenal) approaches with acceptable success rates, complication rates, and recurrence rates. Advantages of endoscopic drainage is the avoidance of external pancreatic fistula.

The Atlanta Classification of acute pancreatitis revisited

BACKGROUND

In a complex disease such as acute pancreatitis, correct terminology and clear definitions are important. The clinically based Atlanta Classification was formulated in 1992, but in recent years it has been increasingly criticized. No formal evaluation of the use of the Atlanta definitions in the literature has ever been performed.

METHODS

A Medline literature search sought studies published after 1993. Guidelines, review articles and their cross-references were reviewed to assess whether the Atlanta or alternative definitions were used.

RESULTS

A total of 447 articles was assessed, including 12 guidelines and 82 reviews. Alternative definitions of predicted severity of acute pancreatitis, actual severity and organ failure were used in more than half of the studies. There was a large variation in the interpretation of the Atlanta definitions of local complications, especially relating to the content of peripancreatic collections.

CONCLUSION

The Atlanta definitions for acute pancreatitis are often used inappropriately, and alternative definitions are frequently applied. Such lack of consensus illustrates the need for a revision of the Atlanta Classification.

Update on acute pancreatitis: ultrasound, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging features

Imaging of patients with acute pancreatitis requires an understanding of the subtypes and complications that were defined at the Atlanta symposium in 1992. In the last decade, several new entities have been recognized with important clinical implications. In this article, the radiological aspects of the terminology and classification of acute pancreatitis are reviewed and new entities are clarified. The roles of ultrasound, computed tomography, and magnetic resonance imaging in the diagnosis and evaluation of acute pancreatitis and its complications are discussed and the limitations of each imaging technique, when interpreting pancreatic and peripancreatic inflammatory disease, are addressed.

EUS-guided transmural cholecystostomy as rescue management for acute cholecystitis in elderly or high-risk patients: a prospective feasibility study

BACKGROUND

Although EUS-guided drainage procedures have been used to collect peripancreatic fluids, little is known regarding EUS-guided transmural gallbladder drainage for high-risk patients with acute cholecystitis.

OBJECTIVE

Our purpose was to evaluate the technical feasibility and outcomes of EUS-guided transmural cholecystostomy as rescue management in elderly and high-risk patients with acute cholecystitis.

DESIGN

Single-center prospective study.

SETTING

Tertiary referral center.

PATIENTS

Nine elderly or high-risk patients diagnosed with acute cholecystitis.

INTERVENTIONS

All inflamed gallbladders were drained by EUS-guided transmural cholecystostomy.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASUREMENT

Clinical resolution of acute cholecystitis.

RESULTS

After the drainage procedures, there were no immediate complications such as bleeding, bile leak, or peritonitis, except for 1 patient who had pneumoperitoneum. After EUS-guided transmural cholecystostomy, all patients showed rapid clinical improvement within 72 hours.

LIMITATIONS

Small number of patients.

CONCLUSION

EUS-guided transmural cholecystostomy may be feasible and safe as initial, interim, or even definitive treatment of patients with severe acute cholecystitis who are at high operative risk for immediate cholecystectomy.

Toward an update of the atlanta classification on acute pancreatitis: review of new and abandoned terms

OBJECTIVES

The 1992 Atlanta classification is a clinically based classification system that defines the severity and complications of acute pancreatitis. The purpose of this review was to assess whether the terms abandoned by the Atlanta classification are really discarded in the literature. The second objective was to review what new terms have appeared in the literature since the Atlanta symposium.

METHODS

We followed a Medline search strategy in review and guideline articles after the publication of the Atlanta classification. This search included the abandoned terms: "phlegmon," "infected pseudocyst," "hemorrhagic pancreatitis," and "persistent pancreatitis."

RESULTS

A total of 239 publications were reviewed, including 10 guideline articles and 42 reviews. The abandoned terms "hemorrhagic pancreatitis" and "persistent pancreatitis" are hardly encountered, in contrast, both "infected pseudocyst" and "phlegmon" are frequently used, and several authors question their abandonment. New terminology in acute pancreatitis consists of "organized pancreatic necrosis," "necroma," "extrapancreatic necrosis," and "central gland necrosis."

CONCLUSIONS

This review demonstrates that the Atlanta classification is still not universally accepted. Several abandoned terms are frequently used, and new terms have emerged that describe manifestations in acute pancreatitis that were not specifically addressed during the Atlanta symposium.

Peroral endoscopic drainage/debridement of walled-off pancreatic necrosis

BACKGROUND

Experience with minimal access, transoral/transmural endoscopic drainage/debridement of walled-off pancreatic necrosis (WOPN) after necrotizing pancreatitis is limited. We sought to determine outcome using this technique.

METHODS

Retrospective analysis.

RESULTS

From 1998 to 2006, 53 patients underwent transoral/transmural endoscopic drainage/debridement of sterile (27, 51%) and infected (26, 49%) WOPN. Intervention was performed a median of 49 days (range, 20-300 days) after onset of acute necrotizing pancreatitis. A median of 3 endoscopic procedures/patient (range, 1-12) were performed. Twenty-one patients (40%) required concurrent radiologic-guided catheter drainage of associated or subsequent areas of peripancreatic fluid and/or WOPN. Twelve patients (23%) required open operative intervention a median of 47 days (range, 5-540) after initial endoscopic drainage/debridement, due to persistence of WOPN (n = 3), recurrence of a fluid collection (n = 2), cutaneous fistula formation (n = 2), or technical failure, persistence of pancreatic pain, colonic obstruction, perforation, and flank abscess (n = 1 each). Final outcome after initial endoscopic intervention (median, 178 days) revealed successful endoscopic therapy in 43 (81%) and persistence of WOPN in 10 (19%). Preexistent diabetes mellitus, size of WOPN, and extension of WOPN into paracolic gutter were significant predictive factors for need of subsequent open operative therapy.

CONCLUSIONS

Successful resolution of symptomatic, sterile, and infected WOPN can be achieved using a minimal access endoscopic approach. Adjuvant percutaneous drainage is necessary in up to 40% of patients, especially when WOPN extends to paracolic gutters or pelvis. Operative intervention for failed endoscopic treatment is required in about 20% of patients.

Treatment of pancreatic pseudocysts, pancreatic necrosis, and pancreatic duct leaks

Pancreatic pseudocysts arise as a complication of acute and chronic pancreatitis or pancreatic trauma (including postsurgical). Pancreatic necrosis occurs following severe pancreatitis and may evolve into an entity termed organized pancreatic necrosis that is endoscopically treatable. Pancreatic duct leaks are frequently seen in relation to pseudocysts and necrosis. Alternatively, pancreatic duct leaks may present with pleural effusions, ascites, or after pancreatic surgery or percutaneous drainage. Endoscopic treatment of pancreatic fluid collections and pancreatic duct leaks can be achieved using transpapillary and/or transmural stent placement.

Endoloop application as an alternative method for gastrotomy closure in experimental transgastric surgery

BACKGROUND

Experimental studies investigating transgastric endoscopic surgery report closure of the gastric wall incision with clips. The author of this report describes endoloop placement as an alternative, equally efficient, faster method for gastrotomy closure.

METHODS

Eight female pigs with a mean weight of 30 kg were used. Abdominal endoscopic exploration and transgastric operations including hepatic biopsies, bilateral tubal ligation, cholecystectomy, and closure of the gastrotomy were performed. The experiment was divided into two parts. The first part included five animals, which were killed immediately after the procedure. The second part included five animals, which were kept alive and killed 15 to 20 days later.

RESULTS

The first part of the experiment, performed for technical skills acquisition, involved transgastric abdominal exploration, liver biopsies, and bilateral tubal ligation, which were successful for all five animals. The gastric wall incision was closed by applying clips in four animals and endoloops in one animal. During the autopsy at the end of the experiment, the sites of intervention were examined macroscopically. In the second part of the experiment, gastrotomy closure with endoloop application was performed in two animals and with clip application in one animal. All three animals survived, gained weight, and demonstrated no signs of infection. They were killed 15 to 20 days after the procedure, and no signs of intraabdominal infection were found. Cultures from the peritoneal cavity were negative. At necropsy, macroscopic and microscopic examination confirmed complete healing of the gastrotomy.

CONCLUSIONS

Transgastric endoscopic surgery is technically feasible and effective. The application of endoloops for closure of the gastric opening is a fast, easy, and equally safe alternative to clip placement.

Endoscopic transmural entry into pancreatic fluid collections using a dedicated aspiration needle without endoscopic ultrasound guidance: success and complication rates

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic drainage of pancreatic fluid collections (PFC) is performed with increasing frequency. A variety of techniques for performing transmural entry have been described. However, data are lacking on the technical success and safety of transmural entry using a single technique. The authors describe the largest experience in transmural entry of PFCs without endoscopic ultrasound (EUS) guidance using a dedicated aspiration needle.

METHODS

All patients who underwent endoscopic transmural drainage of PFC from October 1998 to May 2006 were identified from the endoscopy database. Data were abstracted from the endoscopic procedure report and the patient records then placed in a JMP drive. All drainages were performed without EUS guidance after visualization of an obvious intraluminal bulge using a dedicated large-bore aspiration needle. The transmural tract into the PFC was dilated using a balloon with a diameter of 6 to 20 mm followed by subsequent placement of one or two 10-Fr double pigtail stents with or without nasocystic irrigation tubes. Successful entry was defined as entry allowing for the placement of stents.

RESULTS

No significant difference in the complication rates was observed when they were analyzed for the following variables: age, gender, balloon diameter, presence of endoscopic impression, drainage approach, and size and type of fluid collection.

CONCLUSION

Endoscopic transmural drainage of pancreatic fluid collections can be performed safely and effectively via the Seldinger technique without endoscopic ultrasound guidance. The study data will allow sample size calculations to be made if direct comparisons with this technique and others are undertaken.

Percutaneous transgastric irrigation drainage in combination with endoscopic necrosectomy in necrotizing pancreatitis (with videos)

BACKGROUND

Endoscopic drainage of pancreatic acute and chronic pseudocysts and pancreatic necrosectomy have been shown to be beneficial for critically ill patients, with complete endoscopic resolution rates of around 80%.

OBJECTIVE

Our purpose was to describe an improved endoscopic technique used to treat pancreatic necrosis.

DESIGN

Case report.

SETTING

University hospital.

PATIENTS AND INTERVENTIONS

Two patients with large retroperitoneal necroses were treated with percutaneous transgastric retroperitoneal flushing tubes and a percutaneous transgastric jejunal feeding tube by standard percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy access in addition to endoscopic necrosectomy.

RESULTS

Intensive percutaneous transgastric flushing in combination with percutaneous normocaloric enteral nutrition and repeated endoscopic necrosectomy led to excellent outcomes in both patients.

LIMITATIONS

Small number of patients.

CONCLUSIONS

The "double percutaneous endoscopic gastrostomy" approach for simultaneous transgastric drainage and normocaloric enteral nutrition in severe cases of pancreatic necroses is safe and effective. It could be a promising improvement to endoscopic transgastric treatment options in necrotizing pancreatitis.

Endoscopic transmural drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts: results of a national and an international survey of ASGE members

BACKGROUND

Pancreatic pseudocysts can be drained endoscopically via the transpapillary or the transmural routes. We sought to assess endoscopic methods of pseudocyst drainage.

METHODS

A web-based survey was sent to American Society for Gastrointestinal Endoscopy (ASGE) members in the United States (U.S.) and internationally.

RESULTS

Of the 3054 endoscopists to whom the survey was sent, 266 (8.7%) replied; 198 performed pseudocyst drainage (103 [52%] ASGE members from the United States and 95 [48%] international members). The median of the total number of drainages per physician was 15 (range 1-364). The transgastric route was the most commonly used drainage route (65%). Transmural entry was performed by using a needle-knife in 53% of transmural drainages that were not EUS-guided. The number of stents placed ranged from 1 to 5 and these remained in place for 2 to 30 weeks. CT scan was used before drainage by 95% of all respondents. EUS imaging was used before drainage by 72 of 103 (70%) US endoscopists compared with 56 of 95 (59%) international endoscopists (p = 0.1). EUS-guided drainage was used by 56% of US endoscopists compared with 43% international endoscopists (p = 0.06).

CONCLUSIONS

The most common site of transmural entry for drainage of pancreatic pseudocysts appears to be the transgastric route. Although CT is the most commonly used predrainage imaging modality, EUS is used before and during transmural drainage of pseudocysts in both the U.S. and abroad, particularly in academic medical centers. Use of EUS before or during drainage does not appear to be significantly different among endoscopists in the United States and internationally.

Endoscopic debridement of paraesophageal, mediastinal abscesses: a prospective case series

BACKGROUND

Mediastinal abscesses after esophageal perforation or postoperative leakage nearly always require surgical intervention.

METHODS

Patients with paraesophageal abscesses were treated with EUS-guided or endoscopic mediastinal puncture if the abscess was >2 cm and sepsis was present. Abscess cavities were entered with a 9.5-mm endoscope after balloon dilation to allow irrigation and drainage. Debris was removed with a Dormia basket. Concomitant pleural effusions were treated with transthoracic drains. Patients received intravenous antibiotics and enteral/parenteral nutrition.

RESULTS

Twenty patients fulfilled the entry criteria. Simple drainage was sufficient in 4 cases, and puncture was impossible in one case. Of the 15 treated patients (age 39-76 years, 5 women) the etiology of perforation was Boerhaave's syndrome (n = 8), anastomotic leak (n = 3), and iatrogenic perforation (n = 4). Debridement was successful in all cases and required a median of 5 daily sessions (range 3-10). All patients became apyrexial, with a C-reactive protein < 5 mg/L within a median of 4 days (range 2-8 days). Esophageal defects were closed with endoclips (n = 7), fibrin glue (n = 4), metal stents (n = 1), or spontaneously healed (n = 3). One patient died from a massive pulmonary embolism one day after successful debridement (mortality 7%). No other complications were seen. Median follow-up was 12 months (range 3-40 months).

CONCLUSIONS

Nonoperative endoscopic transesophageal debridement of mediastinal abscesses appears safe and effective.