Assessment of upwind dinghy sailing performance using a Virtual Reality Dinghy Sailing Simulator

Steadiness of technical variables as a determinant factor of performance in a virtual simulated regatta

The aim of this investigation is to explore the relationship between Optimist sailing performance with boat steadiness as well as the steadiness of cyclic variables related to sailors' technique, in the upwind leg of a regatta. Thirty-two sailors from the optimist class (16 bottom level and 16 top level) performed a regatta in a semi-immersive simulator which measures the instantaneous velocity, heading, boom, heel, and rudder angle and hiking effort. It was calculated the mean values as well as the short-term steadiness and long-term steadiness throughout the test. Top level and bottom level sailors were compared and the correlation between these variables and mean velocity were analysed. Significant differences were found between groups on mean values, STS values and LTS values as well as significant correlations ranging r values between 0.385 and 0.768. If the steadiness of sailing variables is considered, they appear as determinants of performance in Optimist class while this is not observed when analysing mean values.

Analysis of the Performance and Sailing Variables of the Optimist Class in a Variety of Wind Conditions

The aim of this study was to analyse the variables that determine the performance of the Optimist class during a regatta in different wind conditions. A total of 203 elite sailors of the Optimist class (121 boys and 82 girls) participated in the study. According to their ranking in the regatta, the sample was divided into four performance groups. In a regatta with 11 races, the velocity made good (VMG), the distance and the manoeuvres were evaluated by means of GNSS equipment in three different courses. The boys performed a greater number of upwind and running manoeuvres than the girls. The very-low-level sailors obtained a lower VMG in all the courses analysed compared with the rest of the groups of sailors of higher levels. Upwind manoeuvres, broad reach and running VMG were significant variables for establishing differences in performance level when the wind speed was in a range of 5 to ≤8 knots. When the wind speed was in the >8 to ≤12 knot range, upwind distance was the key variable in determining performance differences. VMG, upwind and broad reach distance and broad reach manoeuvres were the most important variables when the wind speed was in the >12 to 15 knots range. The boys performed more manoeuvres than the girls in the upwind and running courses.

Performance analysis of Paralympic 2.4mR class sailing

Adapted sailing is a Paralympic sport in which sailors with different types of disabilities can compete in the same event. According to 2.4mR Class, eligible impairments include limb deficiency and vision impairment. However, it is still unknown the variables that determine performance. Thus, the objectives of this study were: (i) to identify the variables that determine the sailing performance, (ii) to analyse the influence of the type of impairment on sailing performance, and (iii) analyse the influence of the wind force on sailing performance. Thirty-three elite sailors with disabilities participated and were divided into three groups according to the type of impairment: affectation of upper, lower, or upper and lower limbs. Participants were evaluated during three 2.4mR class World Cups and the following variables were assessed: velocity made good, distance and manoeuvres in upwind-downwind courses and type of impairment. Those sailors with better performance travelled a shorter distance during downwind sailing. The results showed that performance was not affected by which category the sailor was placed according to the type of impairment. The sailors with a lesser disability perform better when the wind is medium and high.

Profiling of cybersickness and balance disturbance induced by virtual ship motion immersion combined with galvanic vestibular stimulation

Profile of cybersickness and balance disturbance induced by virtual ship motion alone and in combination with galvanic vestibular stimulation (GVS) remained unclear. Subjects were exposed to a ship deck vision scene under simulated Degree 5 or 3 sea condition using a head-mounted virtual reality display with or without GVS. Virtual ship motion at Degree 5 induced significant cybersickness with symptom profile: nausea syndrome > central (headache and dizziness) > peripheral (cold sweating) > increased salivation. During a single session of virtual ship motion exposure, GVS aggravated balance disturbance but did not affect most cybersickness symptoms except cold sweating. Repeated exposure induced cybersickness habituation which was delayed by GVS, while the temporal change of balance disturbance was unaffected. These results suggested that vestibular inputs play different roles in cybersickness and balance disturbance during virtual reality exposure. GVS might not serve as a potential countermeasure against cybersickness induced by virtual ship motion.

Visual search, movement behaviour and boat control during the windward mark rounding in sailing

In search of key-performance predictors in sailing, we examined to what degree visual search, movement behaviour and boat control contribute to skilled performance while rounding the windward mark. To this end, we analysed 62 windward mark roundings sailed without opponents and 40 windward mark roundings sailed with opponents while competing in small regattas. Across conditions, results revealed that better performances were related to gazing more to the tangent point during the actual rounding. More specifically, in the condition without opponents, skilled performance was associated with gazing more outside the dinghy during the actual rounding, while in the condition with opponents, superior performance was related to gazing less outside the dinghy. With respect to movement behaviour, superior performance was associated with the release of the trimming lines close to rounding the mark. In addition, better performances were related to approaching the mark with little heel, yet heeling the boat more to the windward side when being close to the mark. Potential implications for practice are suggested for each phase of the windward mark rounding.

Training transfer: scientific background and insights for practical application

Training transfer as an enduring, multilateral, and practically important problem encompasses a large body of research findings and experience, which characterize the process by which improving performance in certain exercises/tasks can affect the performance in alternative exercises or motor tasks. This problem is of paramount importance for the theory of training and for all aspects of its application in practice. Ultimately, training transfer determines how useful or useless each given exercise is for the targeted athletic performance. The methodological background of training transfer encompasses basic concepts related to transfer modality, i.e., positive, neutral, and negative; the generalization of training responses and their persistence over time; factors affecting training transfer such as personality, motivation, social environment, etc. Training transfer in sport is clearly differentiated with regard to the enhancement of motor skills and the development of motor abilities. The studies of bilateral skill transfer have shown cross-transfer effects following one-limb training associated with neural adaptations at cortical, subcortical, spinal, and segmental levels. Implementation of advanced sport technologies such as motor imagery, biofeedback, and exercising in artificial environments can facilitate and reinforce training transfer from appropriate motor tasks to targeted athletic performance. Training transfer of motor abilities has been studied with regard to contralateral effects following one limb training, cross-transfer induced by arm or leg training, the impact of strength/power training on the preparedness of endurance athletes, and the impact of endurance workloads on strength/power performance. The extensive research findings characterizing the interactions of these workloads have shown positive transfer, or its absence, depending on whether the combinations conform to sport-specific demands and physiological adaptations. Finally, cross-training as a form of concurrent exercising in different athletic disciplines has been examined in reference to the enhancement of general fitness, the preparation of recreational athletes, and the preparation of athletes for multi-sport activities such as triathlon, duathlon, etc.

Indicators of maximal hiking performance in Laser sailors

Laser class sailors have to hike out, i.e. hook their feet under the toe straps near the centreline of the boat and hold their upper bodies over the edge of the boat, to counteract the heeling forces generated by the sails. To identify the parameters that are associated with maximal hiking performance, this cross-sectional observational study measures various knee extensor and hip flexor muscle performance characteristics in 55 Laser sailors and correlates each with the area-under-the-curve hiking moment over 3 min of hiking on a hiking dynamometer (HM180). Our results showed that higher body mass and HM180 were significantly associated with better race scores (Spearman's rho = - 0.69 and - 0.62, respectively, both P < 0.01) in male sailors who participated in the National Inter-School Laser competition. Body mass (Pearson's correlation coefficient, r > or = 0.95, P < 0.01 in both males and females), maximum voluntary isometric strength of the quadriceps (r > or = 0.80, P < 0.01 in both males and females), and 3-RM knee extension strength (r > or = 0.80, P < 0.01 in both males and females) were associated with a higher HM180. The correlations between height, abdominal muscle endurance (crunches), explosive lower body strength (vertical jumps), cycling time-to-exhaustion, quadriceps strength endurance, or isometric quadriceps endurance with incremental loads (bucket test), and HM180 were weaker (r < 0.60). HM180 may be a useful performance indicator for Laser racing. Since strength measures correlated well with HM180, greater emphasis should be placed on developing maximum strength in the quadriceps to improve maximal hiking performance.

Sailing and sports medicine: a literature review

Sailing medicine has been mainly addressed by healthcare professionals who happen to sail. Although there has been an increase in the number of studies of various aspects of sailing over the last 15 years, efforts to advance evidence based knowledge of sailing and sports medicine face unique obstacles. Recent interest in research by groups such as Olympic and America's Cup teams has produced beneficial changes.

Perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport: Some considerations when applying the expert performance approach

The number of researchers studying perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport is increasing. The intention in this paper is to review the currently accepted framework for studying expert performance and to consider implications for undertaking research work in the area of perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport. The expert performance approach presents a descriptive and inductive approach for the systematic study of expert performance. The nature of expert performance is initially captured in the laboratory using representative tasks that identify reliably superior performance. Process-tracing measures are employed to determine the mechanisms that mediate expert performance on the task. Finally, the specific types of activities that lead to the acquisition and development of these mediating mechanisms are identified. General principles and mechanisms may be discovered and then validated by more traditional experimental designs. The relevance of this approach to the study of perceptual-cognitive expertise in sport is discussed and suggestions for future work highlighted.