Quantitative relationships between molecular structures, environmental temperatures and octanol-air partition coefficients of polychlorinated biphenyls

Reliable Prediction of the Octanol-Air Partition Ratio

The octanol-air equilibrium partition ratio (K_OA ) is frequently used to describe the volatility of organic chemicals, whereby n-octanol serves as a substitute for a variety of organic phases ranging from organic matter in atmospheric particles and soils, to biological tissues such as plant foliage, fat, blood, and milk, and to polymeric sorbents. Because measured K_OA values exist for just over 500 compounds, most of which are nonpolar halogenated aromatics, there is a need for tools that can reliably predict this parameter for a wide range of organic molecules, ideally at different temperatures. The ability of five techniques, specifically polyparameter linear free energy relationships (ppLFERs) with either experimental or predicted solute descriptors, EPISuite's KOAWIN, COSMOtherm, and OPERA, to predict the K_OA of organic substances, either at 25 °C or at any temperature, was assessed by comparison with all K_OA values measured to date. In addition, three different ppLFER equations for K_OA were evaluated, and a new modified equation is proposed. A technique's performance was quantified with the mean absolute error (MAE), the root mean square error (RMSE), and the estimated uncertainty of future predicted values, that is, the prediction interval. We also considered each model's applicability domain and accessibility. With an RMSE of 0.37 and a MAE of 0.23 for predictions of log K_OA at 25 °C and RMSE of 0.32 and MAE of 0.21 for predictions made at any temperature, the ppLFER equation using experimental solute descriptors predicted the K_OA the best. Even if solute descriptors must be predicted in the absence of experimental values, ppLFERs are the preferred method, also because they are easy to use and freely available. Environ Toxicol Chem 2021;40:3166-3180. © 2021 The Authors. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of SETAC.

QSPR versus fragment-based methods to predict octanol-air partition coefficients: Revisiting a recent comparison of both approaches

The octanol-air partition coefficient (K_OA) is useful to assess the fate of organic chemicals in the environment. Very recently, an interesting comparison of current methods to predict this property (Chemosphere 148 (2016) 118-125) highlighted a newly introduced Quantitative Structure-Property Relationship (QSPR), as a group-contribution (GC) method and a quantum chemical solvation model were reported to yield significantly less accurate results. Based on the observation that the so-called GC method investigated in this earlier study was inconsistent with the temperature dependence of K_OA, the previously recommended QSPR is presently compared to the geometrical fragment (GF) additivity scheme. In addition to providing some improvement in terms of accuracy, this fragment-based procedure exhibits many advantages in terms of simplicity, interpretability, applicability and availability.

Prediction of octanol-air partition coefficients for PCBs at different ambient temperatures based on the solvation free energy and the dimer ratio

Temperature-dependent octanol-air partition coefficients (K_OA) are of great importance in assessing the environmental behavior and fate of persistent organic pollutants including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs). Due to the tremendous amounts of time, effort and cost needed for the experimental determination of K_OA, it is desirable to develop a rapid and precise predictive method to estimate K_OA just based on molecular structure. In the present study, a predictive model for log K_OA of PCBs at ambient temperatures was developed based on the thermodynamic relationship between K_OA and the solvation free energy from air to octanol (ΔG_OA). For the calculation of ΔG_OA of PCBs, the optimal combination of theoretical method and basis-set was identified to be HF/MIDI!6D for both geometry optimization and energy calculation. Dimer formation could affect the partition behavior and promote the apparent K_OA values of PCBs. After taking the effect of dimer formation into account, the goodness-of-fit, predictive ability, and robustness of the predictive model were significantly improved. Apparent log K_OA values of PCBs at different ambient temperatures ranging from 283.15 to 303.15 K were predicted. Compared with other reported models, the model developed in the present study had not only comparable goodness-of-fit and predictive ability, but also a universal application domain and the relative independency of experimental data. Therefore, the solvation free energy method could be a promising method for the prediction of K_OA.

An exponential model based new approach for correcting aqueous concentrations of hydrophobic organic chemicals measured by polyethylene passive samplers

Although low density polyethylene (PE) passive samplers show promise for the measurement of aqueous phase hydrophobic organic chemicals (HOCs), the lack of a practical and unsophisticated approach to account for non-equilibrium exposure conditions has impeded widespread acceptance and thus application in situ. The goal of this study was to develop a streamlined approach based on an exponential model and a convection mass transfer principle for correcting aqueous concentrations for HOCs deduced by PE samplers under non-equilibrium conditions. First, uptake rate constants (k₁), elimination rate constants (k₂), and seawater-PE equilibrium partition coefficients (K_PEWs) were determined in laboratory experiments for a diverse suite of HOCs with logK_ow range of 3.4-8.3. Linear relationships between log k₂ and logK_ow, and between log K_PEW and logK_ow were established. Second, PE samplers pre-loaded with ¹³C-labeled performance reference compounds (PRCs) were deployed in the ocean to determine their k₂in situ. By applying boundary layer and convection mass transfer theories, ratio (C) of k₂ values in field and laboratory exposures was estimated. This C value was demonstrated a constant that was only determined by water velocities and widths of PE strips. A generic equation with C and logK_ow as parameters was eventually established for extrapolation of non-equilibrium correction factors for the water boundary layer-controlled HOCs. Characterizing the hydrodynamic conditions indicated the sampler configuration and mooring mode should aim at sustaining laminar flow on the PE surface for optimal mass transfer. The PE estimates corrected using this novel approach possessed high accuracy and acceptable precision, and can be suited for a broad spectrum of HOCs. The presented method should facilitate routine utilization of the PE samplers.

Utilizing the partitioning properties of silicone for the passive sampling of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in indoor air

The former use of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in construction materials can lead to elevated indoor air concentrations. We studied the partitioning of PCB congeners between indoor air and silicone with a view to establish passive sampling of PCBs. The release of PCB congeners from silicone followed first order kinetics and confirmed air-side rate-limited mass transfer. Logarithmic elimination rate constants decreased linearly with the logKOA values of the PCB congeners, but varied in a non-linear way with air velocity. Linear uptake of PCBs was found for silicone disks (0.5 mm thickness) in a petri dish, while PCBs reached equilibrium in silicone-coated paper sheets (0.001 mm silicone on each side) exposed to indoor air for 1-2 weeks. The ratios of equilibrium concentrations in silicone and conventionally measured air concentrations were roughly comparable with silicone-air partition coefficients, but further research is required for the determination of silicone-air partition coefficients. Avoiding performance reference compounds (PRCs) because of the indoor setting, the two formats were calibrated against conventional active measurements. Comparisons of air concentrations derived from active and kinetic passive sampling showed a divergence by factors of 2.4 and 2.0 (median values) for the petri dishes and the silicone-coated paper, respectively. With promising results for sensitivity and precision, the calibration of kinetic passive samplers remains the main challenge and will need suitable, non-hazardous PRCs. Equilibrium sampling indicated promising alternatives.

Comparison of prediction methods for octanol-air partition coefficients of diverse organic compounds

The octanol-air partition coefficient (KOA) is needed for assessing multimedia transport and bioaccumulability of organic chemicals in the environment. As experimental determination of KOA for various chemicals is costly and laborious, development of KOA estimation methods is necessary. We investigated three methods for KOA prediction, conventional quantitative structure-activity relationship (QSAR) models based on molecular structural descriptors, group contribution models based on atom-centered fragments, and a novel model that predicts KOA via solvation free energy from air to octanol phase (ΔGO(0)), with a collection of 939 experimental KOA values for 379 compounds at different temperatures (263.15-323.15 K) as validation or training sets. The developed models were evaluated with the OECD guidelines on QSAR models validation and applicability domain (AD) description. Results showed that although the ΔGO(0) model is theoretically sound and has a broad AD, the prediction accuracy of the model is the poorest. The QSAR models perform better than the group contribution models, and have similar predictability and accuracy with the conventional method that estimates KOA from the octanol-water partition coefficient and Henry's law constant. One QSAR model, which can predict KOA at different temperatures, was recommended for application as to assess the long-range transport potential of chemicals.

Prediction of the Fate of Organic Compounds in the Environment From Their Molecular Properties: A Review

A comprehensive review of quantitative structure-activity relationships (QSAR) allowing the prediction of the fate of organic compounds in the environment from their molecular properties was done. The considered processes were water dissolution, dissociation, volatilization, retention on soils and sediments (mainly adsorption and desorption), degradation (biotic and abiotic), and absorption by plants. A total of 790 equations involving 686 structural molecular descriptors are reported to estimate 90 environmental parameters related to these processes. A significant number of equations was found for dissociation process (pKa), water dissolution or hydrophobic behavior (especially through the KOW parameter), adsorption to soils and biodegradation. A lack of QSAR was observed to estimate desorption or potential of transfer to water. Among the 686 molecular descriptors, five were found to be dominant in the 790 collected equations and the most generic ones: four quantum-chemical descriptors, the energy of the highest occupied molecular orbital (EHOMO) and the energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (ELUMO), polarizability (α) and dipole moment (μ), and one constitutional descriptor, the molecular weight. Keeping in mind that the combination of descriptors belonging to different categories (constitutional, topological, quantum-chemical) led to improve QSAR performances, these descriptors should be considered for the development of new QSAR, for further predictions of environmental parameters. This review also allows finding of the relevant QSAR equations to predict the fate of a wide diversity of compounds in the environment.

Comparative effects of sediment versus aqueous polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) exposure on benthic and planktonic invertebrates

Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) are an environmental concern because of their adverse effects on humans and wildlife, and understanding the contribution of various matrices (i.e., sediment and water) to PCB exposure on aquatic communities is critical for successful remediation of impacted sites. The present study examined the toxicity of different routes of PCB exposure in aquatic invertebrates. In complementary laboratory and field experiments, the authors compared the effects of aqueous versus sedimentary exposure of PCBs on invertebrates. In laboratory bioassays, the planktonic Daphnia pulex and benthic Chironomus dilutus exhibited significant mortality when exposed to PCB-contaminated (1100 µg/g) sediment (p = 0.03 and p < 0.01, respectively). In field experiments, adult Dreissena bugensis were placed in cages along a depth gradient at a reference site and a PCB-impacted site in St. Clair Shores, Michigan, USA. Mussels experienced significantly greater mortality (p < 0.001) when placed in close proximity to impacted-site sediments compared with reference sediments. After 7 d, 94% of D. bugensis survived at the reference site compared with only 57% surviving at the impacted site. In addition, D. bugensis at the impacted site experienced significantly less mortality at the water surface (p < 0.001) compared to those near the sediment. The present study demonstrates the importance of evaluating toxicity at the sediment-water interface.

Historical occurrences of polybrominated diphenyl ethers and polychlorinated biphenyls in Manila Bay, Philippines, and in the upper Gulf of Thailand

Historical trends of the accumulation of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in a typical tropical Asian environment were investigated using radio-dated sediment cores from Manila Bay, the Philippines and from the upper Gulf of Thailand. Vertical profiles indicated earlier usage of PCBs than of PBDEs which coincided with their industrial production. The increasing concentrations of total PBDEs and PCBs toward the surface suggested an increased consumption of PBDEs; and possible leakage of PCBs from old machineries into the aquatic environment in recent years. Current input of PCBs to the catchment of Manila Bay was supported by the analyses of air samples and plastic resin pellets. The vertical profiles of total PBDEs in the cores (i.e., rapidly increasing concentrations corresponding to the mid-1980s until mid-1990s, followed by a decrease until the early 2000s, and increasing again toward the surface) likely corresponded to the rapid economic growth in Asia in the 1990s, the Asian financial crisis in 1997, and the economic recovery since early 2000s. BDE-209 was predominant especially on the surface layers. BDEs 47 and 99 generally decreased toward the surface, reflecting the phase-out of the technical penta-PBDE products and the regulation by the Stockholm Convention in recent years. Increasing ratios of BDE-202/209, 206/209, 207/209 and decreasing % of BDE-209 down the core layers may provide evidence for the anaerobic debromination of BDE-209 in the sediment cores. Inventories in ng/cm(2) of total PCBs were higher than total PBDEs (92 vs. 34 and 47 vs. 11 in the Philippines; 47 vs. 33 in Thailand). However, the doubling times indicated faster accumulation of total PBDEs (6-7 years) and BDE-209 (6-7.5 years) than of PCBs (8-11 years). Furthermore, the temporal increase in BDE-209 was comparable to or faster than those reported in other water bodies around the world.

Characterization of gas/particle concentrations and partitioning of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) measured in an urban site of Turkey

Air concentrations of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in both gas and particle phases were measured in an urban site (BUTAL-Merinos) of the city of Bursa, Turkey between August 2004 and May 2005. The mean of total (particle+gas) PCB concentrations was about 491.8+/-189.4pg/m(3). The main contributors for PCBs in the sampling site were the local sources and long-range atmospheric transport supported by back trajectory analysis. Lower molecular weight PCB congeners generally dominated in the samples. The particle phase of the measured PCBs accounted for 15% of the total PCB concentrations. Gas/particle distribution was investigated using different approaches such as log K(P)-log P(L)(o), log K(P)-log K(OA) and the Junge-Pankow model. Regression analysis among log K(P), log P(L)(o) and log K(OA) exhibited significant correlation at p<0.05. Correlation between PCB homologs and meteorological parameters was formed to investigate the possible relationships.

Temperature dependencies of Henry's law constants and octanol/water partition coefficients for key plant volatile monoterpenoids

To model the emission dynamics and changes in fractional composition of monoterpenoids from plant leaves, temperature dependencies of equilibrium coefficients must be known. Henry's law constants (H(pc), Pa m3 mol(-1) and octanol/water partition coefficients (K(OW), mol mol(-1)) were determined for 10 important plant monoterpenes at physiological temperature ranges (25-50 degrees C for H(pc) and 20-50 degrees C for K(OW)). A standard EPICS procedure was established to determine H(pc) and a shake flask method was used for the measurements of K(OW). The enthalpy of volatilization (deltaH(vol)) varied from 18.0 to 44.3 kJ mol(-1) among the monoterpenes, corresponding to a range of temperature-dependent increase in H(pc) between 1.3- and 1.8-fold per 10 degrees C rise in temperature. The enthalpy of water-octanol phase change varied from -11.0 to -23.8 kJ mol(-1), corresponding to a decrease of K(OW) between 1.15- and 1.32-fold per 10 degrees C increase in temperature. Correlations among physico-chemical characteristics of a wide range of monoterpenes were analyzed to seek the ways of derivation of H(pc) and K(OW) values from other monoterpene physico-chemical characteristics. H(pc) was strongly correlated with monoterpene saturated vapor pressure (P(v)), and for lipophilic monoterpenes, deltaH(vol) scaled positively with the enthalpy of vaporization that characterizes the temperature dependence of P(v) Thus, P(v) versus temperature relations may be employed to derive the temperature relations of H(pc) for these monoterpenes. These data collectively indicate that monoterpene differences in H(pc) and K(OW) temperature relations can importantly modify monoterpene emissions from and deposition on plant leaves.

Solvation parameters for the 209 PCBs: calculation of physicochemical properties

Descriptors in the Abraham equations for all the 209 PCBs have been obtained from literature chromatographic data. The six descriptors suffice for the prediction of water to octanol partitions, and for the prediction of various water to solvent and gas to solvent partitions, solubility in water, and water to micelle partition. For water to octanol, gas to dry octanol, gas to wet octanol, solubility of the solid PCBs in water, and gas to water processes, our predictive values agree excellently with the adjusted experimental values of Li et al. for sixteen particular PCBs, and with other experimental observations. We use our predictions to shed light on Henry's law constants of PCBs in water, which are the inverse of gas to water partitions.