Effect of clonidine on colonic motility in rats

Protective effect of dexmedetomidine on intestinal mucosal barrier function in rats after cardiopulmonary bypass

Cardiopulmonary bypass can result in damage to the intestines, leading to the occurrence of systemic inflammatory response syndrome. Dexmedetomidine is reported to confer anti-inflammatory properties. Here, the purpose of this study is to investigate the effect of dexmedetomidine on the intestinal mucosa barrier damage in a rat model of cardiopulmonary bypass. It was observed that cardiopulmonary bypass greatly decreased the levels of hemodynamic parameters than SHAM group, whereas dexmedetomidine pretreatment in a cardiopulmonary bypass model rat prevented this reduction. Also, it showed that compared with control animals, cardiopulmonary bypass caused obvious mucosal damage, which was attenuated in dexmedetomidine + cardiopulmonary bypass group. The above findings were in line with that of dexmedetomidine pretreatment, which increased the expression of tight junction proteins, but it decreased the levels of DAO, D-LA, FABP2, and endotoxin. Moreover, the results demonstrated that due to pre-administration of dexmedetomidine, the level of pro-inflammatory factors was decreased, while the level of anti-inflammatory cytokine was increased. Also, it showed that dexmedetomidine suppressed TLR4/JAK2/STAT3 pathway that was activated by cardiopulmonary bypass. Together, these results revealed that dexmedetomidine pretreatment relieves intestinal microcirculation, attenuates intestinal damage, and inhibits the inflammatory response of cardiopulmonary bypass model rats, demonstrating that in CPB-induced damage of intestinal mucosal barrier function, dexmedetomidine pretreatment plays a protective role by inactivating TLR4/JAK2/STAT3-mediated inflammatory pathway.

Postanaesthetic effects of ketamine-midazolam and ketamine-medetomidine on gastrointestinal transit time in rabbits anaesthetised with isoflurane

BACKGROUND

Gastrointestinal stasis is a common perianaesthetic complication in rabbits. The objective of this study was to assess the impact on gastrointestinal transit time of ketamine-midazolam (KMZ) versus ketamine-medetomidine (later antagonised by atipamezole) (KMT-A) in rabbits anaesthetised with isoflurane.

METHODS

This was a cross-over, randomised, single-blinded, controlled, experimental trial. Seven healthy adult New Zealand White rabbits were used. Gastrointestinal transit time was assessed by contrast radiography in awake rabbits. Presence of contrast medium in the small intestine (gastric transit time), in the caecum (small intestinal transit time) and in faeces in the colon was assessed. One week later, 55 minutes isoflurane anaesthesia was induced with ketamine (15 mg/kg) and either midazolam (3 mg/kg) or medetomidine (0.25 mg/kg) by intramuscular injection. Thirty minutes after discontinuation of isoflurane, atipamezole (0.5 mg/kg) was administered only to rabbits in KMT-A treatment. Gastrointestinal transit time was then assessed in both treatment groups, beginning 30 minutes after cessation of isoflurane administration. Two weeks later, the treatment groups were interchanged.

RESULTS

Gastric and small intestinal transit times were significantly longer with KMT-A (92±109 minutes and 214±119 minutes, respectively) than with KMZ (1±0 minutes and 103±6 minutes, respectively) and in the awake state (7±7 minutes and 94±32 minutes, respectively).

CONCLUSION

Clinicians should therefore be aware of the potential gastrointestinal side effects of KMT-A, particularly in rabbits at risk for gastrointestinal stasis.

Dual Alpha2C/5HT1A Receptor Agonist Allyphenyline Induces Gastroprotection and Inhibits Fundic and Colonic Contractility

BACKGROUND

Allyphenyline, a novel α2-adrenoceptor (AR) ligand, has been shown to selectively activate α2C-adrenoceptors (AR) and 5HT1A receptors, but also to behave as a neutral antagonist of α2A-ARs. We exploited this unique pharmacological profile to analyze the role of α2C-ARs and 5HT1A receptors in the regulation of gastric mucosal integrity and gastrointestinal motility.

METHODS

Gastric injury was induced by acidified ethanol in Wistar rats. Mucosal catalase and superoxide dismutase levels were measured by assay kits. The effect of allyphenyline on electrical field stimulation (EFS)-induced fundic and colonic contractions was determined in C57BL/6 mice.

RESULTS

Intracerebroventricularly injected allyphenyline (3 and 15 nmol/rat) dose dependently inhibited the development of mucosal damage, which was antagonized by ARC 239 (α2B/C-AR and 5HT1A receptor antagonist), (S)-WAY 100135 (selective 5HT1A receptor antagonist), and JP-1302 (selective α2C-AR antagonist). This protection was accompanied by significant elevation of mucosal catalase and superoxide dismutase levels. Allyphenyline (10(-9)-10(-5) M) also inhibited EFS-induced fundic contractions, which was antagonized by ARC 239 and (S)-WAY 100135, but not by JP-1302. Similar inhibition was observed in the colon; however, in this case only ARC 239 reduced this effect, while neither selective inhibition of α2C-ARs and 5HT1A receptors nor genetic deletion of α2A- and α2B-ARs influenced it.

CONCLUSIONS

Activation of both central α2C-ARs and 5HT1A receptors contributes to the gastroprotective action of allyphenyline in rats. Its inhibitory effect on fundic contractions is mediated by 5HT1A receptors, but neither α2-ARs nor 5HT1A receptors take part in its inhibitory effect on colonic contractility in mice.

Mangiferin, a natural xanthone, accelerates gastrointestinal transit in mice involving cholinergic mechanism

AIM: To investigate the effects of mangiferin on gastrointestinal transit (GIT) in normal and constipated mice, together with the possible mechanism.

METHODS: Intragastrically-administered charcoal meal was used to measure GIT in overnight starved Swiss mice. In the first experiments, mangiferin (3 mg/kg, 10 mg/kg, 30 mg/kg, and 100 mg/kg, po) or tegaserod (1 mg/kg, ip) were administered 30 min before the charcoal meal to study their effects on normal transit. In the second series, mangiferin (30 mg/kg) was tested on delayed GIT induced by several different pharmacological agonists (morphine, clonidine, capsaicin) or antagonists (ondansetron, verapamil, and atropine) whereas in the third series, mangiferin (30 mg/kg, 100 mg/kg and 300 mg/kg) or tegaserod (1 mg/kg) were tested on 6 h fecal pellets outputted by freely fed mice. The ratio of wet to dry weight was calculated and used as a marker of fecal water content.

RESULTS: Mangiferin administered orally significantly (P < 0.05) accelerated GIT at 30 mg/kg and 100 mg/kg (89% and 93%, respectively), similarly to 5-hydroxytryptamine₄ (5-HT₄) agonist tegaserod (81%) when compared to vehicle-treated control (63%). Co-administered mangiferin (30 mg/kg) totally reversed the inhibitory effect of opioid agonist morphine, 5-HT₃-receptor antagonist ondansetron and transient receptor potential vanilloid-1 receptor agonist capsaicin on GIT, but only to a partial extent with the GIT-delay induced by α₂-adrenoceptor agonist clonidine, and calcium antagonist verapamil. However, co-administered atropine completely blocked the stimulant effect of mangiferin on GIT, suggesting the involvement of muscarinic acetylcholine receptor activation. Although mangiferin significantly enhanced the 6 h fecal output at higher doses (245.5 ± 10.43 mg vs 161.9 ± 10.82 mg and 227.1 ± 20.11 mg vs 161.9 ± 10.82 mg of vehicle-treated control, at 30 and 100 mg/kg, P < 0.05, respectively), the effect of tegaserod was more potent (297.4 ± 7.42 mg vs 161.9 ± 10.82 mg of vehicle-treated control, P < 0.05). Unlike tegaserod, which showed an enhanced water content in fecal pellets (59.20% ± 1.09% vs 51.44% ± 1.19% of control, P < 0.05), mangiferin evidenced no such effect, indicating that it has only a motor and not a secretomotor effect.

CONCLUSION: Our data indicate the prokinetic action of mangiferin. It can stimulate the normal GIT and also overcome the drug-induced transit delay, via a cholinergic physiological mechanism.

Novel cell surface genes expressed in the stomach primordium during gastrointestinal morphogenesis of mouse embryos

The mechanisms of gastrointestinal morphogenesis in mammals are not well understood. This is partly due to the lack of appropriate markers that are expressed with spatiotemporal specificity in the gastrointestinal tract during development. Using mouse embryos, we surveyed markers of the prospective stomach region during gastrointestinal morphogenesis. The initiation of organ bud formation occurs at E10.5 in mice. These primordia for the digestive organs protrude from a tube-like structured endoderm and have their own distinct morphogenesis. We identified 3 cell surface genes -Adra2a, Fzd5, and Trpv6 - that are expressed in the developing stomach region during gastrointestinal morphogenesis using a microarray-based screening. These novel genes will be useful in expanding our understanding of the mechanisms of gastrointestinal development.

Both α2B- and α2C-adrenoceptor subtypes are involved in the mediation of centrally induced gastroprotection in mice

α(2)-adrenoceptors are known to mediate gastroprotective effect in both acid-dependent and acid-independent ulcer models. The aim of the present study was to determine, which of the three α(2)-adrenoceptor subtypes (α(2A), α(2B) or α(2C)) is responsible for this protection. Various α(2)-adrenoceptor agonists and antagonists were administered intracerebroventricularly (i.c.v.) to C57BL/6 mice with deletion of genes encoding the different subtypes. The gastric mucosal damage was induced by orally injected acidified ethanol. Both the non-selective α(2)-adrenoceptor agonist clonidine (0.3-2.8 nmol) and the α(2B/C)-adrenoceptor subtype preferring agonist ST-91 (0.5-11.5 nmol) induced dose-dependent gastroprotective effect in wild type, α(2A)-, α(2B)- and α(2C)-KO mice. In contrast, the α(2A)-adrenoceptor subtype agonist oxymetazoline (0.07-84 nmol i.c.v.) reduced only slightly the development of ethanol-induced ulcers. The effect of clonidine was antagonized by the non-selective antagonist yohimbine (25 nmol) and the α(2B/C)-adrenoceptor antagonist ARC 239 (10.4 nmol), but not by the α(2A)-adrenoceptor antagonist BRL 44408 (7.5 nmol). ARC 239 also reversed the effect of clonidine in α(2A)-, α(2B)- and α(2C)-KO mice, while the selective α(2C)-adrenoceptor antagonist JP 1302 (52 nmol) antagonized that only in α(2B)-KO, but not in α(2A)- and α(2C)-KO mice. These results suggest that α(2B)- and α(2C)-adrenoceptor subtypes can equally contribute to the mediation of gastroprotective effect induced by α(2)-adrenoceptor agonists in mice.

Adrenergic responses of rat colonic muscularis mucosae

We have investigated adrenoceptor-mediated responses of muscularis mucosae from the proximal, mid and distal regions of the rat colon. Noradrenaline-induced relaxations of the muscularis mucosae in each region were unaffected by atenolol, butoxamine or propranolol, but they were attenuated by the selective β3-adrenoceptor antagonist cyanopindolol. The β3-adrenoceptor agonist CL216343 elicited concentration-dependent relaxation of the muscularis mucosae in all regions of the colon. Isoprenaline, a non-selective β-adrenoceptor agonist, evoked concentration-dependent relaxations of the muscularis mucosae in all regions, but only in the proximal colon were these significantly larger than the maximum noradrenaline-induced relaxation. The α1-adrenoceptor agonist methoxamine caused large contractions of the proximal colonic muscularis mucosae. When proximal tissue was pretreated with phentolamine, an α1-adrenoceptor antagonist, maximal noradrenaline- and isoprenaline-induced relaxations did not differ significantly. Although the mid colonic muscularis mucosae was also found to possess excitatory α1-adrenoceptors, these were associated with small contractions and did not modify the muscle's inhibitory responses to noradrenaline. Distal colonic muscularis mucosae lacked excitatory adrenoceptors and only responded to noradrenaline with β3-adrenoceptor-mediated relaxations. No evidence was obtained for functional α2-adrenoceptors on the muscularis mucosae in any region of the rat colon. These data demonstrated that noradrenaline-induced relaxation of the rat colonic muscularis mucosae was mediated via β3-adrenoceptors throughout, but in the proximal region this was modified by concurrent excitatory α1-adrenoceptor activation. Based upon these observations it appeared unlikely that noradrenaline-induced relaxation of rat colonic muscularis mucosae would be functionally linked to the secretory responses of the corresponding mucosa during periods of increased sympathetic activity.

Oral clonidine inhibits visceral pain-related viscerosomatic and cardiovascular responses to colorectal distension in rats

The alpha(2)-adrenoceptor agonist, clonidine, modulates colorectal sensorimotor functions in humans and, given intrathecally, has analgesic effects in the colorectal distension (CRD) model in rats. We tested the effects of systemic clonidine on the visceral pain-related viscerosomatic and autonomic cardiovascular responses to CRD and colonic compliance in rats using clinically relevant CRD protocols. The activity of the abdominal musculature (viscerosomatic response), monitored by electromyography and intracolonic manometry, and changes in arterial blood pressure and heart rate, monitored by telemetry, were assessed simultaneously in conscious rats during CRD. Pressure-volume relationships during CRD served as a measure of colonic compliance. Clonidine (50-200 nmol/kg, p.o.) dose-dependently inhibited the viscerosomatic response to phasic, noxious CRD (12 distension at 80 mm Hg). At 200 nmol/kg clonidine also attenuated the increase in blood pressure (70+/-7% inhibition, P<0.05) and heart rate (67+/-16% inhibition, P<0.05) associated to noxious CRD. Similar effects were observed after i.v. administration. Likewise, clonidine (200 nmol/kg, p.o.) reduced the response to ascending phasic CRD (10-80 mm Hg) and significantly increased the threshold pressure for pain-related responses. Clonidine (50 or 150 nmol/kg, i.p.) did not affect the pressure-volume relationship during phasic CRD (2-20 mm Hg). These results show that systemic clonidine, at doses devoid of visible side effects, has analgesic effects in the CRD model of visceral pain in rats without affecting colonic compliance. These observations confirm the analgesic activity of systemic clonidine on visceral pain, support the translational value of the rat CRD model to humans and show that manometry is more sensitive than electromyography detecting pain-related responses.

Role of alpha-2 adrenoceptors in regulation of giant migrating contractions and defecation in conscious dogs

The aim was to investigate the effects of alpha(2)-adrenoceptor antagonist yohimbine on colonic motility and defecation. The effects of yohimbine (0.5, 1.0, and 3.0 mg/kg) on colonic motility and defecation were studied in neurally intact dogs (N=6), dogs with extrinsic denervation of the ileocolon (N=4), and dogs with enterically isolated ileocolnic loops (N=5) equipped with strain gauge force transducers on the ileocolon. The effects of yohimbine on colonic motility and defecation were also studied in the presence of various antagonists (atropine, hexamethonium, ondansetron, FK224, and naloxone). Yohimbine evoked giant migrating contractions and defecation in a dose-independent manner in neurally intact dogs. These stimulatory effects of yohimbine were abolished by atropine and hexamethonium. In dogs with extrinsic denervation, yohimbine induced giant migrating contractions in the colon but did not stimulate defecation. In dogs with ileocolonic loops, yohimbine induced colonic motor complexes but not giant migrating contractions in the enterically isolated colon. These results indicate that alpha(2)-adrenoceptors in the peripheral nervous system regulate giant migrating contractions by controlling the release of acetylcholine, while those in the central nervous system must be important in the regulation of defecation.

Loss of enteric dopaminergic neurons and associated changes in colon motility in an MPTP mouse model of Parkinson's disease

Gastrointestinal (GI) dysfunction is the most common non-motor symptom of Parkinson's disease (PD). Symptoms of GI dysmotility include early satiety and nausea from delayed gastric emptying, bloating from poor small bowel coordination, and constipation and defecatory dysfunction from impaired colonic transit. Understanding the pathophysiology and treatment of these symptoms in PD patients has been hampered by the lack of investigation into GI symptoms and pathology in PD animal models. We report that the prototypical parkinsonian neurotoxin, MPTP (1-methyl 4-phenyl 1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine), is a selective dopamine neuron toxin in the enteric nervous system (ENS). When examined 10 days after treatment, there was a 40% reduction of dopamine neurons in the ENS of C57Bl/6 mice administered MPTP (60 mg/kg). There were no differences in the density of cholinergic or nitric oxide neurons. Electrophysiological recording of neural-mediated muscle contraction in isolated colon from MPTP-treated animals confirmed a relaxation defect associated with dopaminergic degeneration. Behaviorally, MPTP induced a transient increase in colon motility, but no changes in gastric emptying or small intestine transit. These results provide the first comprehensive assessment of gastrointestinal pathophysiology in an animal model of PD. They provide insight into the impact of dopaminergic dysfunction on gastrointestinal motility and a benchmark for assessment of other PD model systems.

Pharmacologic reduction of CNS noradrenergic activity in PTSD: the case for clonidine and prazosin

This article reviews the neurobiologic rationale for and presents clinical guidance concerning the use of medications that reduce central nervous system noradrenergic activity in the treatment of intrusive symptoms of posttraumatic stress disorder. The authors reviewed neurobiological studies, nonclinical studies using animal models, clinical case reports, open-label drug studies, and blinded, placebo-controlled drug studies. This review of the basic science and clinical literature, and the authors' clinical experience with culturally and demographically diverse populations, indicate that clonidine and prazosin can play a useful role in treating sleep disturbance and hyperarousal in posttraumatic stress disorder, with minimal adverse effects and low financial cost.

Characterisation of alpha2-adrenoceptor subtypes involved in gastric emptying, gastric motility and gastric mucosal defence

The effect of clonidine on ethanol-induced gastric mucosal damage, gastric emptying and gastric motility was compared. The clonidine-induced gastroprotective effect (0.03-0.09 micromol/kg, s.c.) was antagonised by yohimbine (5 micromol/kg, s.c.), prazosin (0.23 micromol/kg; alpha2B-adrenoceptor antagonist) and naloxone (1.3 micromol/kg, s.c.). Clonidine also inhibited the gastric emptying of liquid meal (0.75-3.75 micromol/kg, s.c.) and gastric motor activity (0.75 micromol/kg, i.v.) stimulated by 2-deoxy-D-glucose (300 mg/kg, i.v.). Inhibition of gastric emptying and motility was reversed by yohimbine (5 and 10 micromol/kg, s.c., respectively), but not by prazosin (0.23 micromol/kg, s.c.) or naloxone (1.3 micromol/kg, s.c.). Oxymetazoline-an alpha2A-adrenoceptor agonist-inhibited both gastric emptying (0.67-6.8 micromol/kg, s.c.) and motility (0.185-3.4 micromol/kg, i.v.), whereas it failed to affect gastric mucosal lesions. The results indicate that in contrast to the gastroprotective effect, which is mediated by alpha2B-adrenoceptor subtype, alpha2A-adrenoceptor subtype may be responsible for inhibition of gastric emptying and motility. However, the site of action (central, peripheral, both) remains to be established.