Age-related changes in visual attention

Pilot Study on Gaze Characteristics of Older Drivers While Watching Driving Movies

Objective: This study aims to clarify the gazing characteristics of older drivers while driving cars using a gaze analysis device. Methods: The participants included 16 older and 12 middle-aged drivers who drove cars daily. After conducting cognitive and attentional function tests, eye gaze while watching driving videos was measured using an eye tracker. Ten driving videos were prepared. In addition, a total of 34 hazard areas were analyzed. Results: The results of the gaze measurement parameters were statistically compared between the two groups. In the older group, the gaze analysis results indicated that while viewing driving videos, the search for areas close to the car was expanded. In addition, in several hazard areas, we observed a decrease in the number of drivers gazing at the driver, shortened total gazing time, delay in the timing of gazing, and decrease in the number of visits. Conclusions: Older drivers' eye movement is increased; however, it is characterized by gazing at unimportant areas, indicating an inefficient scanning pattern. Although these results do not indicate an obvious decline in driving ability among older drivers, the decline in hazard perception may become apparent in some situations. The data contain underpowered results and require revalidation in larger studies.

Evidence for an age-related decline in feature-based attention

Feature-based attention allows to efficiently guide attention to relevant information in the visual scene, but unambiguous empirical evidence on age-related effects is still limited. In this study, young and older participants performed a two-alternative forced choice task in which a response was selected based on a task-relevant number (=target) presented alone or with a task-irrelevant letter (=neutral distracter) or number (=compatible/incompatible distracter). Participants were required to select the target based on color. To compare the behavioral interference of the distracters between the age groups, data were modeled with a hierarchical drift-diffusion model. The results revealed that decreases in the rate at which information was collected in the conditions with versus without a distracter were more pronounced in the older than young age group when the distracter was compatible or incompatible. Our findings are consistent with an age-related decline in the ability to filter out distracters based on features.

Knowledge guides attention to goal-relevant information in older adults

How does viewers’ knowledge guide their attention while they watch everyday events, how does it affect their memory, and does it change with age? Older adults have diminished episodic memory for everyday events, but intact semantic knowledge. Indeed, research suggests that older adults may rely on their semantic memory to offset impairments in episodic memory, and when relevant knowledge is lacking, older adults’ memory can suffer. Yet, the mechanism by which prior knowledge guides attentional selection when watching dynamic activity is unclear. To address this, we studied the influence of knowledge on attention and memory for everyday events in young and older adults by tracking their eyes while they watched videos. The videos depicted activities that older adults perform more frequently than young adults (balancing a checkbook, planting flowers) or activities that young adults perform more frequently than older adults (installing a printer, setting up a video game). Participants completed free recall, recognition, and order memory tests after each video. We found age-related memory deficits when older adults had little knowledge of the activities, but memory did not differ between age groups when older adults had relevant knowledge and experience with the activities. Critically, results showed that knowledge influenced where viewers fixated when watching the videos. Older adults fixated less goal-relevant information compared to young adults when watching young adult activities, but they fixated goal-relevant information similarly to young adults, when watching more older adult activities. Finally, results showed that fixating goal-relevant information predicted free recall of the everyday activities for both age groups. Thus, older adults may use relevant knowledge to more effectively infer the goals of actors, which guides their attention to goal-relevant actions, thus improving their episodic memory for everyday activities.

Longitudinal associations of self-reported satisfaction with life and vitality with risk of mortality

OBJECTIVE

The aims of the current study were to investigate the associations between two aspects of well-being - satisfaction with life and vitality - and all-cause mortality, and examine the impact of potential confounding factors on the associations.

METHODS

Baseline satisfaction with life was assessed using the Satisfaction With Life Scale (n = 7058) and vitality was assessed using the Short-Form 36 vitality subscale (n = 6987). The study sample consisted of midlife participants from the Copenhagen Aging and Midlife Biobank (CAMB) study conducted from 2009 to 2011. Deaths (n = 312) in the study sample in the follow-up period (mean of 8.6 years) were assessed using Danish register data. The hazard ratios of all-cause mortality according to satisfaction with life and vitality scores adjusted for potential covariates were examined with proportional hazard regression.

RESULTS

A one standard deviation increase on the SWLS and the SF-36 vitality scale was associated with a 39% (HR = 0.61, 95% CI = 0.55-0.67) and 40% (HR = 0.60, 95% CI = 0.54-0.66) decreased risk of mortality respectively, after adjustment for baseline sociodemographic factors. The associations remained significant after separate adjustment for lifestyle (SWLS: HR = 0.67, SF-36 vitality: HR = 0.67), health (SWLS: HR = 0.65, SF-36 vitality: HR = 0.64), depressive symptoms (SWLS: HR = 0.72, SF-36 vitality: HR = 0.71) and social factors (SWLS: HR = 0.76, SF-36 vitality: HR = 0.69).

CONCLUSIONS

Satisfaction with life and vitality are of predictive value for mortality, independently of sociodemographics, lifestyle, health, depressive symptoms, and social factors.

Age-related changes in visual search: manipulation of colour cues based on cone contrast and opponent modulation space

Reduced retinal illuminance affects colour perception in older adults, and studies show that they exhibit deficiencies in yellow-blue (YB) discrimination. However, the influence of colour cues on the visual attention in older individuals remains unclarified. Visual attention refers to the cognitive model by which we prioritise regions within the visual space and selectively process information. The present study aimed to explore the effect of colour on visual search performance in older observers. In our experiment, younger observers wearing glasses with a filter that simulated the spectral transmittance of the aging human lens and older observers performed two types of search tasks, feature search (FS) and conjunction search (CS), under three colour conditions: red-green, YB, and luminance. Targets and distractors were designed on the basis of the Derrington–Krauskopf–Lennie colour representation. In FS tasks, reaction times changed according to colour in all groups, especially under the YB condition, regardless of the presence or absence of distractors. In CS tasks with distractors, older participants and younger participants wearing glasses showed slower responses under chromatic conditions than under the achromatic condition. These results provide preliminary evidence that, for older observers, visual search performance may be affected by impairments in chromatic colour discrimination.

Visual attention, biological motion perception, and healthy ageing

Biological motion perception is the ability of the visual system to perceive complex human movement patterns. The previous studies have shown a direct link between attentional abilities and performance on biological motion tasks, both of which have been shown to deteriorate with age. However, it is not known whether there is a direct link between age-related deficits in biological motion processing and attention. Here, we investigated whether age-related changes in biological motion perception are mediated by impaired attentional abilities. To assess basic biological motion performance, we asked 42 younger (M = 21 years) and 39 older adults (M = 69 years) to indicate the facing direction of point-light actions. Performance did not differ between age groups. We assessed visual spatial and selective attentional abilities, using a range of tasks: conjunctive visual search, spatial cueing, and the Stroop task. Across all tasks, older adults were significantly slower to respond and exhibited larger interference/cueing effects, compared to younger adults. To assess attentional demands in relation with biological motion perception, participants performed a biological motion search task for which they had to indicate the presence of a target point-light walker among a varied number of distracters. Older adults were slower, and generally worse than younger adults at discriminating the walkers. Correlations showed that there was no significant relationship between performance in attention tasks and biological motion processing, which indicates that age-related changes in biological motion perception are unlikely to be driven by general attentional decline.

Gaze distribution analysis and saliency prediction across age groups

Knowledge of the human visual system helps to develop better computational models of visual attention. State-of-the-art models have been developed to mimic the visual attention system of young adults that, however, largely ignore the variations that occur with age. In this paper, we investigated how visual scene processing changes with age and we propose an age-adapted framework that helps to develop a computational model that can predict saliency across different age groups. Our analysis uncovers how the explorativeness of an observer varies with age, how well saliency maps of an age group agree with fixation points of observers from the same or different age groups, and how age influences the center bias tendency. We analyzed the eye movement behavior of 82 observers belonging to four age groups while they explored visual scenes. Explorative- ness was quantified in terms of the entropy of a saliency map, and area under the curve (AUC) metrics was used to quantify the agreement analysis and the center bias tendency. Analysis results were used to develop age adapted saliency models. Our results suggest that the proposed age-adapted saliency model outperforms existing saliency models in predicting the regions of interest across age groups.

Looking at paintings in the Vincent Van Gogh Museum: Eye movement patterns of children and adults

In the present study, we examined the eye movement behaviour of children and adults looking at five Van Gogh paintings in the Van Gogh Museum, Amsterdam. The goal of the study was to determine the role of top-down and bottom-up attentional processes in the first stages of participants’ aesthetic experience. Bottom-up processes were quantified by determining a salience map for each painting. Top-down processing was manipulated by first allowing participants to view the paintings freely, then providing background information about each painting, and then allowing them to view the paintings a second time. The salience analysis showed differences between the eye movement behaviour of children and adults, and differences between the two phases. In the children, the first five fixations during the free viewing phase were strongly related to visually salient features of the paintings—indicating a strong role for bottom-up factors. In the second phase, after children had received background information, top-down factors played a more prominent role. By contrast, adults’ observed patterns were similar in both phases, indicating that bottom-up processes did not play a major role when they viewed the paintings. In the second phase, children and adults both spent more time looking at regions that were mentioned in the background information. This effect was greater for adults than for children, confirming the notion that adults, when viewing paintings, rely much more on top-down processing than children.

An evaluation of alertness training for older adults

We present an evaluation of a self-administered, biofeedback-aided, alertness training programme called the Alertness: Training for Focused Living (ATFL) Programme, which was developed as part of the Technology Research for Independent Living (TRIL) collaboration. We conducted two studies in order to evaluate the programme. A randomized controlled trial was, first of all, conducted with 40 older adults aged between 60 and 83. A series of five single case studies was then conducted to examine the suitability of the programme for use with people with more severe memory difficulties. In the randomized controlled trial, participants were assigned to the ATFL Programme or to a placebo programme. Aspects of participants' memory, attention and executive functioning were assessed via telephone prior to and following completion of the training programmes and at 1, 3, and 6-month follow-up sessions. Significant improvements in sustained attention and verbal fluency were noted in the ATFL group. The series of single case studies illustrated the importance of tailoring a programme to the needs and abilities of the clients in question. The potential benefits of the ATFL programme in terms of periodically boosting alertness and aiding executive functioning are discussed.

Sustained attention in the elderly: what do we know and what does it tell us about cognitive aging?

The ability to achieve and maintain the focus of cognitive activity on a given stimulation source or task, in other words to sustain attention or vigilance, is a fundamental component of human cognition. Given the omnipresent need for sustained attention in people's daily lives, a precise knowledge of the effects of normal aging on sustained attention is crucial. Findings in this topic are currently not consistent since they highlight either alteration or preservation or even the two, depending on the experimental approach used. Actually, the two existing approaches do not involve bottom-up and top-down processes at the same extent, which may in part account for this inconclusiveness. This review presents and attempts to explain these results by putting them into perspective with our current knowledge on cognitive aging and the two competing vigilance decrement theories, and discusses how they could inform us on our problems with sustaining attention over time.

Age-related frontoparietal changes during the control of bottom-up and top-down attention: an ERP study

We investigated age-related changes in frontal and parietal scalp event-related potential (ERP) activity during bottom-up and top-down attention. Younger and older participants were presented with arrays constructed to induce either automatic "pop-out" (bottom-up) or effortful "search" (top-down) behavior. Reaction times (RTs) increased and accuracy decreased with age, with a greater age-related decline in accuracy for the search than for the pop-out condition. The latency of the P300 elicited by the visual search array was shorter in both conditions in the younger than in the older adults. Pop-out target detection was associated with greater activity at parietal than at prefrontal locations in younger participants and with a more equipotential prefrontal-parietal distribution in older adults. Search target detection was associated with greater activity at prefrontal than at parietal locations in older relative to younger participants. Thus, aging was associated with a more prefrontal P300 scalp distribution during the control of bottom-up and top-down attention. Early latency extrastriate potentials were enhanced and N2-posterior-contralateral (N2pc) was reduced in the older group, supporting the idea that the frontal enhancements may be due to a compensation for disinhibition and distraction in the older adults. Taken together these findings provide evidence that younger and older adults recruit different frontal-parietal networks during top-down and bottom-up attention, with older adults increasing their recruitment of a more frontally distributed network in both of these types of attention. This work is in accord with previous neuroimaging findings suggesting that older adults recruit more frontal activity in the service of a variety of tasks than younger adults.

White matter tract integrity predicts visual search performance in young and older adults

Functional imaging research has identified frontoparietal attention networks involved in visual search, with mixed evidence regarding whether different networks are engaged when the search target differs from distracters by a single (elementary) versus multiple (conjunction) features. Neural correlates of visual search, and their potential dissociation, were examined here using integrity of white matter connecting the frontoparietal networks. The effect of aging on these brain-behavior relationships was also of interest. Younger and older adults performed a visual search task and underwent diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) to reconstruct 2 frontoparietal (superior and inferior longitudinal fasciculus; SLF and ILF) and 2 midline (genu, splenium) white matter tracts. As expected, results revealed age-related declines in conjunction, but not elementary, search performance; and in ILF and genu tract integrity. Importantly, integrity of the superior longitudinal fasciculus, ILF, and genu tracts predicted search performance (conjunction and elementary), with no significant age group differences in these relationships. Thus, integrity of white matter tracts connecting frontoparietal attention networks contributes to search performance in younger and older adults.

Age differences in search of web pages: the effects of link size, link number, and clutter

Reaction time, eye movements, and errors were measured during visual search of Web pages to determine age-related differences in performance as a function of link size, link number, link location, and clutter. Participants (15 young adults, M = 23 years; 14 older adults, M = 57 years) searched Web pages for target links that varied from trial to trial. During one half of the trials, links were enlarged from 10-point to 12-point font. Target location was distributed among the left, center, and bottom portions of the screen. Clutter was manipulated according to the percentage of used space, including graphics and text, and the number of potentially distracting nontarget links was varied. Increased link size improved performance, whereas increased clutter and links hampered search, especially for older adults. Results also showed that links located in the left region of the page were found most easily. Actual or potential applications of this research include Web site design to increase usability, particularly for older adults.