Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the new designer drug N-benzylpiperazine in urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

A Systematic Method for the Identification of Aporphine Alkaloid Constituents in Sabia schumanniana Diels Using UHPLC-Q-Exactive Orbitrap/Mass Spectrometry

Sabia schumanniana Diels (SSD) is a plant whose stems are used in traditional folk medicine for the treatment of lumbago and arthralgia. Previous studies have revealed chemical constituents of SSD, including triterpenoids and aporphine alkaloids. Aporphine alkaloids contain a variety of active components, which might facilitate the effective treatment of lumbago and arthralgia. However, only 5-oxoaporphine (fuseine) has been discovered in SSD to date. In this study, we sought to systematically identify the aporphine alkaloids in SSD. We established a fast and reliable method for the detection and identification of these aporphine alkaloids based on ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography (UHPLC)-Q-Exactive-Orbitrap/mass spectrometry combined with parallel reaction monitoring (PRM). We separated all of the analyzed samples using a Thermo Scientific Hypersil GOLD™ aQ C18 column (100 mm × 2.1 mm, 1.9 μm). Finally, we identified a total of 70 compounds by using data such as retention times and diagnostic ions. No fewer than 69 of these SSD aporphine alkaloids have been reported here for the first time. These findings may assist in future studies concerning this plant and will ultimately contribute to the research and development of new drugs.

Simultaneous LC-MS/MS screening for multiple phenethylamine-type conventional drugs and new psychoactive substances in urine

New psychoactive substances are being launched in the drug market at a rapidly growing pace. More than 950 new psychoactive substances have been reported to the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime. The development of new psychoactive substance abuse has drawn risks on public health and safety. Phenethylamines, along with other stimulants, accounted for the majority of the new psychoactive substances being reported in the past decade. This study presents a liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) method for the simultaneous screening of 74 conventional and artificial phenethylamines in urine samples. The chromatographic analysis was performed by a direct dilute-and-shoot procedure using a Phenomenex Kinetex® Phenyl-Hexyl column (10 cm × 2.1 mm i.d., 1.7 µm) and two mobile phases (A: 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution with 5 mM ammonium acetate, B: 0.1% formic acid methanolic solution). The mass fragments were collected under the multiple reaction monitoring mode. The linearity range located in 1.0-50.0 ng/mL for quantitative analysis. The limit of detection and lower limit of quantification for 74 phenethylamines were 0.5 ng/mL and 1.0 ng/mL, respectively. The method was validated and further applied to analyze authentic urine samples. Twenty samples were tested positive of seven phenethylamines from 67 samples, whereas the contents detected were 9.8 ng/mL to 147.1 μg/mL with dilution factors of 40 to 20,000 folds.

Piperazine, a Key Substructure for Antidepressants: Its Role in Developments and Structure-Activity Relationships

Depression is the single largest contributor to global disability with a huge economic and social burden on the world. There are a number of antidepressant drugs on the market, but treatment-resistant depression and relapse of depression in a large number of patients have increased problems for clinicians. One peculiarity observed in most of the marketed antidepressants is the presence of a piperazine substructure. Although piperazine is also used in the optimization of other pharmacological agents, it is almost extensively used for the development of novel antidepressants. One common understanding is that this is due to its favorable CNS pharmacokinetic profile; however, in the case of antidepressants, piperazine plays a much bigger role and is involved in specific binding conformations of these agents. Therefore, in this review, a critical analysis of the significance of the piperazine moiety in the development of antidepressants has been performed. An overview of current developments in the designing and synthesis of piperazine-based antidepressants (2015 onwards) along with SAR studies is also provided. The various piperazine-based therapeutic agents in early- or late-phase human testing for depression are also discussed. The preclinical compounds discussed in this review will help researchers understand how piperazine actually influences the design and development of novel antidepressant compounds. The SAR studies discussed will provide crucial clues about the structural features and optimizations required to enhance the efficacy and potency of piperazine-based antidepressants.

Spectral trends in GC-EI-MS data obtained from the SWGDRUG mass spectral library and literature: A resource for the identification of unknown compounds

Rapid identification of new or emerging psychoactive substances remains a critical challenge in forensic drug chemistry laboratories. Current analytical protocols are well-designed for confirmation of known substances yet struggle when new compounds are encountered. Many laboratories initially attempt to classify new compounds using gas chromatography-electron ionization-mass spectrometry (GC-EI-MS). Though there is a large body of research focused on the analysis of illicit substances with GC-EI-MS, there is little high-level discussion of mass spectral trends for different classes of drugs. This manuscript compiles literature information and performs simple exploratory analyses on evaluated GC-EI-MS data to investigate mass spectral trends for illicit substance classes. Additionally, this work offers other important aspects: brief discussions of how each class of drugs is used; illustrations of EI mass spectra with proposed structures of commonly observed ions; and summaries of mass spectral trends that can help an analyst classify new illicit compounds.

A novel analytical method of TFMPP and mCPP in fluids of drug addicts using LLE-GC/NPD

In recent years, drug-abuse problem is growing by leaps and bounds all over the world. The master minds spearheading its proliferation among the youth are difficult to identify, so drug-abuse case has become a hard nut to crack even with the help of best international experts in forensic science and criminology. Because most nations have tightened their controls on traditional drugs, the younger generation is now hooked onto new-type drugs: 1-(3- trifluoromethylphenyl) piperazine (TFMPP), 1-(3-chlorophenyl) piperazine (mCPP) and other new piperazine-drugs, acting as hallucinogens like ‘ecstasy’, are being consumed by vulnerable masses all over the world. However, only few research studies have focused on developing highly effective detection methods for TFMPP and mCPP in biological fluids; the number of detection methods for these new-type drugs is almost nil in China. Therefore, it is difficult to detect and prevent drug abuse cases related to piperazine drugs in China. There is an urgent need to develop some simple, fast, and reliable methods for detecting piperazine-drugs in vulnerable masses. Thus, the development of novel detection methods with high sensitivity and selectivity is a difficult task for the officials working in the department of forensic science in China. In this work, a new method was developed for the detection of piperazine derivatives: it was performed under the various specific conditions required for conducting chromatography and mass spectrometry analysis. With this novel method, TFMPP and mCPP was successfully detected with high accuracy in various biological samples. By comparing the purification effect of different solid-phase extraction columns for TFMPP and mCPP in biological fluids (urine and blood), we confirmed the validity of the novel method. In addition, this method has good linear relationship and a low detection line when GC/MS was performed for detecting TFMPP, mCPP in the biological fluids (urine and blood). It is a simple, reproducible method that is highly specific in the detection of piperazine-drugs. Thus, it is indeed a reliable method in forensic science.

Benzylpiperazine: "A messy drug"

Designer drugs are synthetic structural analogues/congeners of controlled substances with slightly modified chemical structures intended to mimic the pharmacological effects of known drugs of abuse so as to evade drug classification. Benzylpiperazine (BZP), a piperazine derivative, elevates synaptic dopamine and serotonin levels producing stimulatory and hallucinogenic effects, respectively, similar to the well-known drug of abuse, methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). Furthermore, BZP augments the release of norepinephrine by inhibiting presynaptic autoreceptors, therefore, BZP is a "messy drug" due to its multifaceted regulation of synaptic monoamine neurotransmitters. Initially, pharmaceutical companies used BZP as a therapeutic drug for the treatment of various disease states, but due to its contraindications and abuse potential it was withdrawn from the market. BZP imparts predominately sympathomimetic effects accompanied by serious cardiovascular implications. Addictive properties of BZP include behavioral sensitization, cross sensitization, conditioned place preference and repeated self-administration. Additional testing of piperazine derived drugs is needed due to a scarcity of toxicological data and widely abuse worldwide.

In vitro hepatotoxicity of 'Legal X': the combination of 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(m-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP) triggers oxidative stress, mitochondrial impairment and apoptosis

N-Benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP) are two synthetic phenylpiperazine analogues that have been frequently commercialized in combination as an alternative to ecstasy ('Legal X'). Despite reports of several clinical complications following the use of these drugs in association, few studies have been conducted so far to elucidate their combined toxicity. The present study was aimed at clarifying the cytotoxic effects of mixtures of BZP and TFMPP in vitro. Human-derived HepaRG cells and primary rat hepatocytes were exposed to the drugs, individually or combined at different mixture ratios, and cytotoxicity was assessed by the MTT assay. Mixture additivity expectations were calculated by the independent action and the concentration addition (CA) models and compared with the experimental outcomes. To delineate the mechanisms underlying the elicited effects, a range of stress endpoints was evaluated, including oxidative stress, energetic imbalance, and metabolic interactions. It was observed that primary rat hepatocytes are more sensitive than HepaRG cells to the toxicity of BZP (EC₅₀ 2.20 and 6.60 mM, respectively) and TFMPP (EC₅₀ 0.14 and 0.45 mM, respectively). For all BZP-TFMPP combinations tested, CA was the most appropriate model to predict the mixture effects. TFMPP proved to act additively with BZP to produce significant hepatotoxicity (p < 0.01). Remarkably, substantial mixture effects were observed even when each drug was present at concentrations that were harmless individually. In primary hepatocytes, a small deviation from additivity (antagonism) was observed toward the upper range of the concentration-response curve. GC/MS data suggest that a metabolic interaction may be at a play, as the mixture favors the metabolism of both substances, to a significant extent in the case of BZP (p < 0.05). Also, our results demonstrate the influence of oxidative stress and energetic imbalance on these effects (increase in RNS and ROS production, decrease in intracellular GSH/GSSG, ATP depletion and mitochondrial Δψm disruption). The present work clearly demonstrates that potentially harmful interactions among BZP and TFMPP are expected when these drugs are taken concomitantly.

Low resolution and high resolution MS for studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the new psychoactive substance methoxypiperamide (MeOP)

In 2013, the new psychoactive substance methoxypiperamide (MeOP) was first reported to the European Monitoring Centre for Drug and Drug Addiction. Its structural similarity to already controlled piperazine designer drugs might have contributed to the decision to offer MeOP for online purchase. The aims of this work were to identify the phase I/II metabolites of MeOP in rat urine and the human cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes responsible for the initial metabolic steps. Finally, the detectability of MeOP in rat urine by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) and liquid chromatography coupled with multistage mass spectrometry (LC-MS(n)) standard urine screening approaches (SUSAs) was evaluated. After sample preparation by cleavage of conjugates followed by extraction for elucidating phase I metabolites, the analytes were separated and identified by GC-MS as well as liquid chromatography-high resolution-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-HR-MS/MS). For detection of phase II metabolites, the analytes were separated and identified after urine precipitation followed by LC-HR-MS/MS. The following metabolic steps could be postulated: hydrolysis of the amide, N-oxide formation, N- and/or O-demethylation, oxidation of the piperazine ring to the corresponding keto-piperazine, piperazine ring opening followed by oxidation of a methylene group to the corresponding imide, and hydroxylation of the phenyl group. Furthermore, N-acetylation, glucuronidation and sulfation were observed. Using human CYPs, CYP1A2, CYP2C19, CYP2D6, and/or CYP3A4 were found to catalyze N-oxide formation and N-, O-demethylation and/or oxidation. Mostly MeOP and N-oxide-MeOP but to a minor degree also other metabolites could be detected in the GC-MS and LC-MS(n) SUSAs.

Structural analysis of quazepam metabolites in bile by ion trap time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Quazepam (QZP) is a long-acting benzodiazepine-type hypnotic. We searched for novel QZP metabolites in bile and determined their structures by liquid chromatography-ion trap time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-IT-TOF MS). The metabolites were extracted with ethyl acetate after β-glucuronidase treatment. First, a single MS spectrum was acquired. Second, MS(n) spectra were acquired for peaks that consisted of ions with the isotope pattern corresponding to molecules bearing one chlorine atom. The novel QZP metabolites found in this study were hydroxyquazepam, hydroxy-methoxyquazepam, hydroxy-oxoquazepam, and hydroxy-methoxy-oxoquazepam, which have the hydroxy and methoxy groups on the fluorophenyl group, and dihydroxy-oxoquazepam and dihydroxy-methoxy-oxoquazepam, which have one hydroxy group at the 3-position of the seven-membered ring and the other hydroxy group and the methoxy group on the fluorophenyl group. We demonstrated that LC-IT-TOF MS was a useful tool for determining the structure of the metabolites. However, the exact locations of the hydroxy and methoxy groups on the fluorophenyl group could not be identified.

Recent developments in urinalysis of metabolites of new psychoactive substances using LC–MS

In the last decade, an ever-increasing number of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) have appeared on the recreational drug market. To account for this development, analytical toxicologists have to continuously adapt their methods to encompass the latest NPSs. Urine is the preferred biological matrix for screening analysis in different areas of analytical toxicology. However, the development of urinalysis procedures for NPSs is complicated by the fact that generally little or no information on urinary excretion patterns of such drugs exists when they first appear on the market. Metabolism studies are therefore a prerequisite in the development of urinalysis methods for NPSs. In this article, the literature on the urinalysis of NPS metabolites will be reviewed, focusing on articles published after 2008.

Screening of methylenedioxyamphetamine- and piperazine-derived designer drugs in urine by LC-MS/MS using neutral loss and precursor ion scan

This study describes a method for the screening of methylenedioxyamphetamine- and piperazine-derived compounds in urine by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. These substances, characterized by possessing common moieties, are screened using precursor ion and neutral loss scan mode and then quantified in multiple reaction monitoring acquisition mode. Based on the product-ion spectra of different known molecules, chosen as 'model', characteristic neutral losses and product ions were selected: piperazines were detected in precursor ion scan of m/z 44 and neutral loss of 43 and 86 while amphetamines in precursor ion scan of m/z 133, 135 and 163. The applicability of the screening approach was studied in blank urine spiked with selected analytes and processed by solid-phase extraction. Linearity, matrix effect, precision, accuracy, limits of detection and limits of quantification were evaluated both for the screening and the quantification methods. The ability of the screening method to provide semi-quantitative data was demonstrated. This method appears to be a useful tool for the identification of designer drugs derived from piperazines or methylenedioxyamphetamines and can be potentially applied to other drug classes.

Current awareness of piperazines: pharmacology and toxicology

Although many piperazine derivatives exist, only a limited number have been studied, whereby they have been found to be generally stimulant in nature resulting from dopaminergic, noradrenergic, and predominantly serotoninergic effects in the brain. Reported toxic effects include agitation, anxiety, cardiac symptoms (e.g. tachycardia) and sometimes seizures. As for many drugs, they are primarily metabolized by cytochrome P450 with subsequent possible glucuronidation and/or sulfation. Their abuse has been relatively recently observed in the last decade with only a few identified in biological fluid (primarily 1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (3-TFMPP)) despite publications of a number of analytical methods. Even when detected, however, the toxicological significance of their presence is often difficult to ascertain as many cases involve other drugs as well as a wide and overlapping range of concentrations found in blood (both in life and after death). This paper reviews the current pharmacological and toxicological information for piperazine derivatives and also includes new ante-mortem and post-mortem blood data.

The clinical toxicology of the designer "party pills" benzylpiperazine and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine

INTRODUCTION

Benzylpiperazine (BZP) and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) are synthetic phenylpiperazine analogues. BZP was investigated as a potential antidepressant in the early 1970s but was found unsuitable for this purpose. More recently, BZP and TFMPP have been used as substitutes for amfetamine-derived designer drugs. They were legally available in a number of countries, particularly in New Zealand, and were marketed as party pills, but are now more heavily regulated. This article will review the mechanisms of toxicity, toxicokinetics, clinical features, diagnosis, and management of poisoning due to BZP and TFMPP.

METHODS

OVID MEDLINE and ISI Web of Science were searched systematically for studies on BZP and TFMPP and the bibliographies of identified articles were screened for additional relevant studies including nonindexed reports. Nonpeer-reviewed sources were also accessed. In all, 179 papers excluding duplicates were identified and 74 were considered relevant.

MECHANISMS OF ACTION

BZP and TFMPP have stimulant and amfetamine-like properties. They enhance the release of catecholamines, particularly of dopamine, from sympathetic nerve terminals, increasing intra-synaptic concentrations. The resulting elevated intra-synaptic monoamine concentrations cause increased activation of both central and peripheral α- and β-adrenergic postsynaptic receptors. BZP has primarily dopaminergic and noradrenergic action while TFMPP has a more direct serotonin agonist activity.

TOXICOKINETICS

There is limited information on the kinetics of these drugs. Following ingestion, peak plasma concentrations are reached after 60 to 90 min. Both drugs would be expected to cross the blood brain barrier and they are metabolized mainly by hydroxylation and N-dealkylation catalyzed by cytochrome P450 and catechol-o-methyl transferase enzymes. In humans, only small amounts of both BZP and TFMPP are excreted in the urine, suggesting a low bioavailability. The serum half-lives of BZP and TFMPP are relatively short with elimination being essentially complete in 44 h for BZP and 24 h for TFMPP.

CLINICAL FEATURES

These compounds can cause harmful effects when taken recreationally. Commonly reported features include palpitations, agitation, anxiety, confusion, dizziness, headache, tremor, mydriasis, insomnia, urine retention, and vomiting. Seizures are induced in some patients even at low doses. Severe multiorgan toxicity has been reported, though fatalities have not been recorded conclusively.

MANAGEMENT

Supportive care including the termination of seizures is paramount, with relief of symptoms usually being provided by benzodiazepines alone.

CONCLUSIONS

BZP and TFMP can cause sympathomimetic effects in the intoxicated patient. Appropriate, symptom-directed supportive care should ensure a good recovery.

Bioanalysis of new designer drugs

Since the late 1990s the illicit drug market has undergone considerable change: along with the traditional drugs of abuse that still dominate, more than 100 psychotropic substances designed to bypass controlled substances legislation have appeared and led to intoxications and fatalities. Starting from the huge class of phenylalkylamines, containing many subgroups, the spectrum of structures has grown from tryptamines, piperazines, phenylcyclohexyl derivates and pyrrolidinophenones to synthetic cannabinoids and the first synthetic cocaine. Due to the small prevalence and high number of unknown substances, the detection of new designer drugs is a challenge for clinical and forensic toxicologists. Standard screening procedures might fail because a recently discovered or yet unknown substance has not been incorporated in the library used. Nevertheless, many metabolism studies, case reports, screening methods and substance-profiling papers concentrating on single compounds have been published. This review provides an overview of the developed bioanalytical and analytical methods, the matrices used, sample-preparation procedures, concentration of analytes in case of intoxication and also gives a résumé of immunoassay experiences. Additionally, six screening methods for biological matrices with a larger spectrum of analytes are described in more detail.

Determining the subjective and physiological effects of BZP on human females

BACKGROUND

"Party pills" containing benzylpiperazine (BZP) used to be widely and legally available as recreational drugs in New Zealand. There are only two published trials on human subjects (1973), which suggested that 100 mg of BZP produced subjective and physiological effects similar to 10 mg of dexamphetamine. The purpose of this study is to further investigate the subjective and physiological responses to BZP in females.

METHODS/STUDY DESIGN

In a randomised, double blind, placebo-controlled study, the subjective and physiological effects of BZP were investigated in 27 healthy, right-handed non-smoking females (mean age 22 +/- 3 years). Two groups were tested before and approximately 120 minutes after administration of a single oral dose of either 200 mg BZP (n = 14) or placebo (n = 13). Participants were required to comment on the subjective effects of BZP using three rating scales-the Addiction Centre for Research Inventory, the Profile of Mood States and the Visual Analogue Scale. Participants' blood pressure, heart rate and temperature were also measured.

RESULTS/FINDINGS

Statistical analysis using a split-plot analysis of variance and t tests revealed that BZP significantly increases blood pressure and heart rate (p < 0.05) Likewise, the subjective reports revealed that BZP has significant stimulant effects, increases euphoria and dysphoria and increases sociability and drug liking (p < 0.05).

DISCUSSION/INTERPRETATION

Physiological and subjective data reflected a clear similarity between the effects of BZP and those of other commonly known stimulants such as amphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine.

New designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques

The aim of the present study was to identify the metabolites of the new designer drug alpha-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (PVP) in rat urine using GC/MS techniques. Eleven metabolites of PVP could be identified suggesting the following metabolic steps: hydroxylation of the side chain followed by dehydrogenation to the corresponding ketone; hydroxylation of the 2''-position of the pyrrolidine ring followed by dehydrogenation to the corresponding lactam or followed by ring opening to the respective aliphatic aldehyde and further oxidation to the respective carboxylic acid; degradation of the pyrrolidine ring to the corresponding primary amine; and hydroxylation of the phenyl ring, most probably in the 4'-position. The authors' screening procedure for pyrrolidinophenones allowed the detection of PVP metabolites after application of a dose corresponding to a presumed user's dose. In addition, the involvement of nine different human cytochrome P450 (CYP) isoenzymes in the side chain hydroxylation of PVP was investigated and CYP 2B6, 2C19, 2D6, and 3A4 were found to catalyze this reaction.

Pharmacokinetics of 'party pill' drug N-benzylpiperazine (BZP) in healthy human participants

There have been many reports of benzylpiperazine (BZP) and trifluoromethylphenylpiperazine (TFMPP) being used as recreational drugs which have been widely marketed in the form of 'party pills' since the late 1990's. However, there is no information currently available describing the pharmacokinetics of these drugs in humans. Human plasma concentrations of BZP were measured in blood and urine samples taken from healthy adults (n=7) over 24h following a 200mg oral dose of BZP. Plasma concentrations of BZP were found to peak at 262 ng/mL (C(max)) and 75min (T(max)). Plasma concentrations of the major metabolites of BZP, 4-OH BZP and 3-OH BZP, were found to peak at 7 ng/mL (at 60 min) and 13 ng/mL (at 75 min) respectively. The elimination half-life (t(1/2)) for BZP was found to be 5.5h. Clearance (Cl/F) was found to be 99L/h. The results of this study indicate that BZP may be detectable in plasma for up to 30 h following an oral dose. Additionally, several urinary metabolites can be detected.

In vivometabolism of the new designer drug 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazine (MeOPP) in rat and identification of the human cytochrome P450 enzymes responsible for the major metabolic step

1. The in vivo metabolism of 1-(4-methoxyphenyl)piperazine (MeOPP), a novel designer drug, was studied in male Wistar rats. 2. MeOPP was mainly O-demethylated to 1-(4-hydroxyphenyl)piperazine (4-HO-PP) in addition to degradation of the piperazine moiety. 3. O-demethylation, the major metabolic step, was studied with cDNA-expressed human hepatic cytochrome P450 (CYP) enzymes in pooled human liver microsomes (pHLM) and in single donor human liver microsomes with CYP2D6 poor metabolizer genotype (PM HLM). 4. CYP2D6 catalysed O-demethylation with apparent Km and Vmax values of 48.34 +/- 14.48 microM and 5.44 +/- 0.47 pmol min(-1) pmol(-1) CYP, respectively. pHLM catalysed the monitored reaction with an apparent Km = 204.80 +/- 51.81 microM and Vmax = 127.50 +/- 13.25 pmol min(-1) mg(-1) protein. 5. The CYP2D6-specific chemical inhibitor quinidine (1 and 3 microM) significantly inhibited 4-HO-PP formation by 71.9 +/- 4.8% and by 98.5% +/- 0.5%, respectively, in incubation mixtures with pHLM and 200 microM MeOPP. 6. O-demethylation was significantly lower in PM HLM compared with pHLM (70.6% +/- 7.2%). 7. These data suggest that polymorphically expressed CYP2D6 is the enzyme mainly responsible for MeOPP O-demethylation.

Metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug 4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine in rat urine using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of the amphetamine-derived designer drug 4-chloro-2,5-dimethoxyamphetamine (DOC) in rat urine using gas chromatographic-mass spectrometric techniques. The metabolites identified indicated that DOC was metabolized by O-demethylation at position 2 or 5 of the phenyl ring partly followed by glucuronidation and/or sulfation. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis procedure using full-scan gas chromatography-mass spectrometry after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of DOC in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug user's dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the STA procedure described should be suitable as proof of an intake of DOC in human urine.

New designer drugs N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-ethoxyethanamine (PCEEA) and N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-methoxyethanamine (PCMEA): Studies on their metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques

Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological detection of the phencyclidine-derived designer drugs N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-ethoxyethanamine (PCEEA) and N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-2-methoxyethanamine (PCMEA) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that PCEEA and PCMEA were transformed to the same metabolites by N-dealkylation and O-dealkylation partially followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol to the respective carboxylic acid and hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring at different positions and combinations of those. Finally, aromatic hydroxylation of the O-dealkylated metabolites was partially followed by hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring at different positions. All metabolites were partially excreted in conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a common drug users' dose both of PCEEA and PCMEA in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism in humans, the STA should be suitable for proof of an intake of PCEEA and PCMEA in human urine, although their differentiation is not possible due to common metabolites.

[1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(3-trifluorométhylphényl)pipérazine (TFMPP): emergence of two agents which lead to misuse]

1-benzylpiperazine (BZP) and 1-(3-trifluoromethylphenyl)piperazine (TFMPP) are psychoactive agents which have become available on the illicit drug market in France since 2006. These compounds are employed for their stimulating, enacting, and "recreational" properties. The combination of BZP and TFMPP enables drug users to reproduce the domaminergic and serotoninergic components of amphetamine derivatives. Intoxication can be life threatening for BZP. This compound has been detected, in association with other psychoactive agents with similar action, in several fatal cases. In addition, there is a potential risk of addiction, confirmed in animal models. The toxicity of TFMPP appears to be weaker with no apparent risk of addiction. There is however a risk of serious psychiatric manifestations and serotoninergic syndrome. There are certain national regulations, but to date no international regulations have been developed for BZP and TFMPP. In the European Union, BZP is now being monitored in compliance with the 10 May 2005 decision of the Commision on information sharing, risk evaluation, and control relative to new psychoactive agents.

Designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (DOM, STP): involvement of the cytochrome P450 isoenzymes in formation of its main metabolite and detection of the latter in rat urine as proof of a drug intake using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry

The designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-amphetamine (DOM, STP) is known to be extensively metabolized in various species. The current study showed that cytochrome P450 2D6 was the only isoenzyme involved in formation of the main metabolite hydroxy DOM. In addition, the authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC-MS was suitable to prove an intake of a common drug users' dose of DOM by detection of hydroxy DOM in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of DOM in human urine. However, DOM and/or other metabolites such as deamino-oxo-hydroxy DOM might be the target analyte in urine of CYP2D6 poor metabolizers.

Proof of a 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP) intake—Use as adulterant of cocaine resulting in drug–drug interactions?

Since 2005, increasing numbers of seizures of the designer drug of abuse 1-(3-chlorophenyl)piperazine (mCPP) have been reported. This paper describes the unequivocal proof of a mCPP intake. Differentiation from the intake of its precursor drugs trazodone and nefazodone was performed by a systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC-MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation. The found mCPP/hydroxy-mCPP ratio indicated altered metabolism of this cytochrome (CYP) 2D6 catalyzed reaction compared to published studies using the same procedure. Although this might be ascribed to a poor metabolizer (PM) phenotype, genotyping revealed no PM genotype but indications for an intermediate metabolizer genotype. However, a PM phenotype could also be caused by drug-drug interactions with CYP2D6 inhibitors or substrates such as the co-consumed cocaine and diltiazem and/or diltiazem metabolites, respectively. In conclusion, the presented data indicate a possible relevance of CYP2D6 polymorphism and/or drug interactions to mCPP toxicokinetics, which is important for risk assessment of this new designer drug of abuse, in particular if it is used as adulterant of CYP2D6 substrates such as cocaine.

Legal piperazine-containing party pills--a new trend in substance misuse

In this Harm Reduction Digest Sheridan, Butler, Wilkins and Russell address the emergent phenomenon of so-called 'legal party pills' which have become a significant drug issue in New Zealand and elsewhere. Although banned in a number of countries, they are currently legally available in New Zealand where they are marketed as 'safe' alternatives' to 'illicit' drugs often used in the dance scene such as MDMA and amphetamines. The authors describe the availability and use of these substances in New Zealand, summarize what is known about their effects, and speculate on harm reduction interventions and mechanisms of control and their possible sequelae. The paper provides a timely account of an emerging drug issue of relevance to harm reduction internationally.

Studies on the toxicological detection of the designer drug 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-β-phenethylamine (2C-B) in rat urine using gas chromatography–mass spectrometry

The phenethylamine-derived designer drug 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxy-beta-phenethylamine (2C-B) is known to be extensively metabolized in various species including humans. In rat urine, 2C-B was found to be excreted mainly via its metabolites. In the current study, the toxicological detection of these metabolites in the authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure was examined. The STA procedure using full-scan GC-MS allowed proving an intake of a common drug abusers' dose of 2C-B by detection of the O-demethyl deaminohydroxy and two isomers of the O-demethyl metabolites in rat urine. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of 2C-B in human urine.

Rapid diagnosis of drug intoxication using novel NAGINATA gas chromatography/mass spectrometry software

In Japan, not only the classical stimulant, methamphetamine, but also a wide variety of illicit drugs and designer drugs are abused by juveniles. It is, however, difficult to screen these drugs in human urine due to the poor availability of high-quality standards. Therefore, it is important to develop a screening method that does not require the use of standard compounds. Furthermore, if we can obtain approximate drug concentrations in biological fluids by the first screening procedure, the subsequent treatment of the patient and forensic diagnosis can be carried out more rapidly and exact quantitative analysis performed more efficiently. We have devised a rapid screening method for the simultaneous semi-quantitative analysis of 30 abused drugs using gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) with a retention time locking technique. Based on this method, an 'abused drugs database' was constructed including retention time (RT), qualifier ion/target ion (QT) percentage and calibration curve (values of slope and intercept) using the novel GC/MS software, NAGINATA. We compared the analytical results obtained by this method using the constructed database with those from conventional methods in six forensic cases. The number of confirmed drugs and concentrations obtained by the established method was comparable with that obtained by conventional methods. We found a significant improvement in the time for data analysis, and qualitative and quantitative information about each drug was obtained without using standards. Therefore, this new screening procedure using NAGINATA has potential for the rapid identification of poisoning and should be useful in clinical and forensic toxicological analyses.

Studies on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-beta- phenethylamine (2C-D) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques

The phenethylamine-derived designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-methyl-beta-phenethylamine (2C-D) was found to be metabolized in rats by O-demethylation at position 2 or 5 followed by N-acetylation or by deamination with oxidation to the corresponding acids or reduction to the corresponding alcohol. Furthermore, 2C-D was hydroxylated at the methyl group or deaminated followed by reduction to the corresponding alcohol or by oxidation to the corresponding acid. Most of the metabolites were excreted in conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of 2C-D in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug user's dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of 2C-D in human urine.

Designer drug 2,4,5-trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA-2): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques

Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological detection of the amphetamine-derived designer drug 2,4,5-trimethoxyamphetamine (TMA-2) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that TMA-2 was metabolized by oxidative deamination to the corresponding ketone followed by reduction to the corresponding alcohol, O-demethylation followed by oxidative deamination, and finally O,O-bis-demethylation. All metabolites carrying hydroxy groups were found to be partly excreted in urine as glucuronides and/or sulfates. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction, and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection, in rat urine, of an intake of TMA-2 that corresponds to a common drug users' dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure in human urine should be suitable as proof of an intake of TMA-2.

New designer drug N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-ethoxypropanamine (PCEPA): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques

Studies are described on the metabolism and toxicological detection of the phencyclidine-derived designer drug N-(1-phenylcyclohexyl)-3-ethoxypropanamine (PCEPA) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that PCEPA was metabolized by N-dealkylation, O-deethylation partially followed by oxidation of the resulting alcohol to the corresponding carboxylic acid, hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring at different positions of PCEPA, N-dealkyl PCEPA, O-deethyl PCEPA, and of the corresponding carboxylic acids. Finally, aromatic hydroxylation of PCEPA, the corresponding carboxylic acids, and O-deethyl PCEPA, the latter partially followed by oxidation to the corresponding carboxylic acid and hydroxylation of the cyclohexyl ring could be observed. All metabolites were partially excreted in the conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction, and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection in rat urine of an intake of a common drug users' dose of PCEPA. Assuming a similar metabolism in humans, the STA in human urine should be suitable as proof of intake of PCEPA.

New designer drug 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-beta-phenethylamine (2C-I): studies on its metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric and capillary electrophoretic/mass spectrometric techniques

Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of the phenethylamine-derived designer drug 4-iodo-2,5-dimethoxy-beta-phenethylamine (2C-I) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric (GC/MS) techniques, and for a particular question, using capillary electrophoretic/mass spectrometric (CE/MS) techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that 2C-I was metabolized on the one hand by O-demethylation in position 2 and 5, respectively, followed either by N-acetylation or by deamination with subsequent oxidation to the corresponding acid or reduction to the corresponding alcohol, respectively. The latter metabolite was hydroxylated in beta-position and further oxidized to the corresponding oxo metabolite. On the other hand, 2C-I was metabolized by deamination with subsequent oxidation to the corresponding acid or reduction to the corresponding alcohol, respectively. 2C-I and most of its metabolites were partially excreted in conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of 2C-I in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug users' dose. Assuming similar metabolism, the described STA procedure should be suitable for proof of an intake of 2C-I in human urine.

Designer drugs 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromo-amphetamine (DOB) and 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromo-methamphetamine (MDOB): studies on their metabolism and toxicological detection in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques

Studies are described on the metabolism and the toxicological analysis of the amphetamine-derived designer drug 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromo-amphetamine (DOB) and its corresponding N-methyl analogue 2,5-dimethoxy-4-bromo-methamphetamine (MDOB) in rat urine using gas chromatographic/mass spectrometric techniques. The identified metabolites indicated that DOB was metabolized by O-demethylation followed by oxidative deamination to the corresponding ketone as well as deamination followed by reduction to the corresponding alcohol. Other metabolic pathways were O,O-bisdemethylation or hydroxylation of the side chain followed by O-demethylation and deamination to the corresponding alcohol. The expected oxo compound after deamination could not be detected. All metabolites carrying hydroxy groups were found to be partly excreted in the conjugated form. MDOB underwent O-demethylation, O,O-bisdemethylation, or hydroxylation of the side chain followed by O-demethylation. Additional N-demethylation to DOB occurred, including the above-mentioned metabolites. Again, all metabolites carrying hydroxy groups were found to be partly excreted in the conjugated form. The authors' systematic toxicological analysis (STA) procedure using full-scan GC/MS after acid hydrolysis, liquid-liquid extraction, and microwave-assisted acetylation allowed the detection of an intake of a dose of DOB and MDOB in rat urine that corresponds to a common drug user's dose. Assuming a similar metabolism, the described STA procedure in human urine should be suitable as proof of an intake of DOB and MDOB.