Determination of diclofenac in rat bile and its interaction with cyclosporin A using on-line microdialysis coupled to liquid chromatography

Determination of diclofenac concentrations in human plasma using a sensitive gas chromatography mass spectrometry method

Background

A gas chromatography mass spectrometry (GCMS) method for the determination of diclofenac in human plasma has been developed and validated.

Results

This method utilizes hexane which is a relatively less toxic extraction solvent compared to heptane and benzene. In addition, phosphoric acid and acetone were added to the samples as deproteination agents, which increased the recovery of diclofenac. These revised processes allow clean extraction and near-quantitative recovery of analyte (approx. 89–95 %). Separation was achieved on a BP-1 column with helium as carrier gas. The molecular ion peaks of the indolinone derivatives of diclofenac ion (m/z 277) and the internal standard, 4-hydroxydiclofenac ion (m/z 439) were monitored by a mass-selective detector using selected ion monitoring (SIM) mode. The linear range for the newly developed and highly sensitive assay was between 0.25–50 ng/mL. The detection and lower quantifiable limits were 0.125 and 0.25 ng/mL, respectively. The inter-day and intra-day coefficients of variation for high, medium and low quality control concentrations were less than 9 %. The robustness and efficacy of this sensitive GCMS method was further demonstrated by using it for a pharmacokinetic study of an oral dosage form of diclofenac, 100 mg of modified-release capsules (Rhumalgan XL), in human plasma.

Conclusions

This method is rapid, sensitive, specific, reproducible and robust, and offers improved sensitivity over previous methods. This method has considerable potential to be used for detailed pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics and bioequivalence studies of diclofenac in humans.

Recent trends in microdialysis sampling integrated with conventional and microanalytical systems for monitoring biological events: a review

Microdialysis (MD) is a sampling technique that can be employed to monitor biological events both in vivo and in vitro. When it is coupled to an analytical system, microdialysis can provide near real-time information on the time-dependent concentration changes of analytes in the extracellular space or other aqueous environments. Online systems for the analysis of microdialysis samples enable fast, selective and sensitive analysis while preserving the temporal information. Analytical methods employed for online analysis include liquid chromatography (LC), capillary (CE) and microchip electrophoresis and flow-through biosensor devices. This review article provides an overview of microdialysis sampling and online analysis systems with emphasis on in vivo analysis. Factors that affect the frequency of analysis and, hence, the temporal resolution of these systems are also discussed.

Efficient high performance liquid chromatograph/ultraviolet method for determination of diclofenac and 4′-hydroxydiclofenac in rat serum

A rapid and sensitive high-performance liquid chromatographic method was developed for determination of diclofenac and its major metabolite, 4'-hydroxydiclofenac, in serum from rats treated with diclofenac. The method is simple with a one-step extraction procedure, isocratic HPLC separation, and UV detection at 280 nm. Use of N-phenylanthranilic acid as the internal standard provided good accuracy without interference by endogenous compounds or 5-hydroxydiclofenac, another metabolite of interest. Limits of detection for diclofenac and 4'-hydroxydiclofenac were 0.0225 and 0.0112 microg/ml, respectively. Average extraction efficiencies of diclofenac, 4'-hydroxydiclofenac, and the internal standard were >/=76%. The method was applied to serum collected at 3h after rats were treated with an experimentally useful dosage range of 3, 10 and 50mg/kg diclofenac. Recovery (as a percentage of dose) for the 4'-hydroxy metabolite in serum was found to consistently average from 0.10 to 0.12% following each dosage, whereas recovery of diclofenac in serum declined from 0.45 to 0.37%. Thus, the method is suitable for measurement of a major diclofenac metabolite in experimental studies.

Identification of degradation products of diclofenac by electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry

The degradation products of diclofenac in aqueous dosage form in accelerated storage conditions were characterized by electrospray ionization-ion trap mass spectrometry (ESI-MS). Liquid chromatography (LC)-MS analyses revealed the presence of three degradation products. ESI-MS(n) spectra were used to study diclofenac fragmentation in detail and to characterize the structures of degradation products. A previously described degradation product, formed by a cyclization reaction of diclofenac producing the indolinone derivative, was found. As any hydroxylated product was found, no oxidation seems to occur in the dosage form used. On the contrary, two degradates have been detected and identified, leading to a primary alcohol structure or an aldehyde function in place of the acetate group of diclofenac.

Assaying protein unbound drugs using microdialysis techniques

Compared with traditional sampling methods, microdialysis is a technique for protein unbound drug sampling without withdrawal of biological fluids and involving minimal disturbance of physiological function. Conventional total drug sample consists of unbound drugs and protein bound drugs, which are loosely bound to plasma proteins such as albumin and alpha-1 acid glycoprotein, forming an equilibrium ratio between bound and unbound drugs. However, only the unbound fraction of drug is available for absorption, distribution, metabolism and elimination, and delivery to the target sites for pharmacodynamic actions. Although several techniques have been used to determine protein unbound drugs from biological fluids, including ultrafiltration, equilibrium dialysis and microdialysis, only microdialysis allows simultaneous sampling of protein unbound chemicals from plasma, tissues and body fluids such as the bile juice and cerebral spinal fluid for pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic studies. This review article describes the technique of microdialysis and its application in pharmacokinetic studies. Furthermore, the advantages and limitations of microdialysis are discussed, including the detailed surgical techniques in animal experiments from rat blood, brain, liver, bile duct and in vitro cell culture for unbound drug analysis.