Theoretical and experimental evaluation of decypolyglucoside vesicles as potential drug delivery systems

Bee Venom-Loaded Niosomes as Innovative Platforms for Cancer Treatment: Development and Therapeutical Efficacy and Safety Evaluation

Despite past efforts towards therapeutical innovation, cancer remains a highly incident and lethal disease, with current treatments lacking efficiency and leading to severe side effects. Hence, it is imperative to develop new, more efficient, and safer therapies. Bee venom has proven to have multiple and synergistic bioactivities, including antitumor effects. Nevertheless, some toxic effects have been associated with its administration. To tackle these issues, in this work, bee venom-loaded niosomes were developed, for cancer treatment. The vesicles had a small (150 nm) and homogeneous (polydispersity index of 0.162) particle size, and revealed good therapeutic efficacy in in vitro gastric, colorectal, breast, lung, and cervical cancer models (inhibitory concentrations between 12.37 ng/mL and 14.72 ng/mL). Additionally, they also revealed substantial anti-inflammatory activity (inhibitory concentration of 28.98 ng/mL), effects complementary to direct antitumor activity. Niosome safety was also assessed, both in vitro (skin, liver, and kidney cells) and ex vivo (hen's egg chorioallantoic membrane), and results showed that compound encapsulation increased its safety. Hence, small, and homogeneous bee venom-loaded niosomes were successfully developed, with substantial anticancer and anti-inflammatory effects, making them potentially promising primary or adjuvant cancer therapies. Future research should focus on evaluating the potential of the developed platform in in vivo models.

Functionalized niosomes as a smart delivery device in cancer and fungal infection

Various diseases remain untreated due to lack of suitable therapeutic moiety or a suitable drug delivery device, especially where toxicities and side effects are the primary reason for concern. Cancer and fungal infections are diseases where treatment schedules are not completed due to severe side effects or lengthy treatment protocols. Advanced treatment approaches such as active targeting and inhibition of angiogenesis may be preferred method for the treatment for malignancy over the conventional method. Niosomes may be a better alternative drug delivery carrier for various therapeutic moieties (either hydrophilic or hydrophobic) and also due to ease of surface modification, non-immunogenicity and economical. Active targeting approach may be done by targeting the receptors through coupling of suitable ligand on niosomal surface. Moreover, various receptors (CD44, folate, epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) & Vascular growth factor receptor (VGFR)) expressed by malignant cells have also been reviewed. The preparation of suitable niosomal formulation also requires considerable attention, and its formulation depends upon various factors such as selection of non-ionic surfactant, method of fabrication, and fabrication parameters. A combination therapy (dual drug and immunotherapy) has been proposed for the treatment of fungal infection with special consideration for surface modification with suitable ligand on niosomal surface to sensitize the receptors (C-type lectin receptors, Toll-like receptors & Nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain-like receptors) present on immune cells involved in fungal immunity. Certain gene silencing concept has also been discussed as an advanced alternative treatment for cancer by silencing the mRNA at molecular level using short interfering RNA (si-RNA).

Introducing Tween-curcumin niosomes: preparation, characterization and microenvironment study

In this work, we report unusual niosomes (non-ionic surfactant based vesicles), prepared using non-ionic surfactant Tween 80 (T80) as well as Tween 20 (T20) and curcumin. Conventional niosomes consist of non-ionic surfactant and cholesterol. We found that, despite being a probiotic, curcumin plays a similar role to cholesterol in the formation and stabilization of niosomes. The prepared Tween-curcumin niosomes were characterised using Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS), zeta potential, Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM), and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM) techniques. The curcumin-induced micelle to vesicle transition in the Tween surfactants was investigated by DLS, zeta potential, fluorescence anisotropy, and fluorescence lifetime studies. At room temperature (298 K), the prepared niosomes were found to be stable; however, at a higher temperature (333 K), the niosomes degrade gradually and irreversibly to form micelles. The temperature-dependent vesicle to micelle degradation was monitored using fluorescence anisotropy, absorption, DLS and Differential Scanning Calorimetry (DSC) measurements. Further, the Tween-curcumin niosomes show a controlled release of curcumin, which could open up the possibility of multidrug therapy.

The use of biovesicles to improve the efficiency of Zn foliar fertilization

Foliar fertilization is becoming very popular since it is highly efficient, minimizes contamination, and is target oriented. However, the low mobility of several nutrients and low penetration through the leaf cuticle should be addressed, to establish an efficient leaf applied fertilizer. During the last few years, nanotechnologies - such as nanocarriers - have been studied with regard to improving the penetration and delivery of compounds. This work describes the use of membrane vesicles obtained from Brassica oleracea L. as nanobiocarriers of Zn and the evaluation of their potential as a foliar fertilizer, also in Brassica. The results show a high Zn encapsulation efficiency and high delivery into protoplasts. Also, the foliar fertilization experiments demonstrated a very effective system of Zn nanofertilization.

Rapid on-Chip Assembly of Niosomes: Batch versus Continuous Flow Reactors

The large-scale continuous production of niosomes remains challenging. The inherent drawbacks of batch processes such as large particle polydispersity and reduced batch-to-batch reproducibility are here overcome by using commercially available microfluidic reactors. Compared to the traditional batch-based film hydration method, herein, we demonstrate that it is possible to carry out the homogeneous, large-scale (up to 120 mg/min) production of niosomes using two different synthesis techniques (the thin film hydration method and the emulsification technique). Niosomes particle size can be controlled depending on the need by varying the synthesis temperature. The high cytocompatibility of the resulting niosomes was also demonstrated in this work on three different somatic cell lines. For the first time, the structure of the niosome multilamellar shell was also elucidated using high-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HR-STEM) as well as their colloidal stability over time (6 weeks) under different storage conditions. The morphology of cryo-protected or as-made niosomes was also evaluated by HR-STEM after freeze-drying. Finally, the dual ability of those synthetic, nonionic, surfactant-based vesicles to carry both hydrophilic and hydrophobic molecules was also here demonstrated by using laser scanning confocal microscopy.

Non-Ionic Surfactant Vesicles (Niosomes) as New Drug Delivery Systems

Lipid vesicular systems composed of hydrated amphihiles with or without bilayer inducing agents such as cholesterol. On the basis of used amphiphilic molecule different nomenclature are used as liposomes, ufasomes and niosomes. Nonionic surfactants with mono-, di- or trialkyl chains form niosomes which are lipid vesicles with more chemical stability in comparison with phospholipids of liposomes. Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals can be encapsulated in niosomes as a new drug delivery system. This drug carrier system could have administered via injection, oral, pulmonary, vaginal, rectal, ophthalmic, nasal or transdermal routes with penetration enhancing potential. This chapter presents a detailed explain about niosome forming components, methods of preparation and routes of administration. Many examples for drug delivery potential of niosomes are also available in this review. Vaccine adjuvant and genetic substances vector capabilities are not given here.

Non-Ionic Surfactant Vesicles (Niosomes) as New Drug Delivery Systems

Lipid vesicular systems composed of hydrated amphihiles with or without bilayer inducing agents such as cholesterol. On the basis of used amphiphilic molecule different nomenclature are used as liposomes, ufasomes and niosomes. Nonionic surfactants with mono-, di- or trialkyl chains form niosomes which are lipid vesicles with more chemical stability in comparison with phospholipids of liposomes. Both hydrophobic and hydrophilic chemicals can be encapsulated in niosomes as a new drug delivery system. This drug carrier system could have administered via injection, oral, pulmonary, vaginal, rectal, ophthalmic, nasal or transdermal routes with penetration enhancing potential. This chapter presents a detailed explain about niosome forming components, methods of preparation and routes of administration. Many examples for drug delivery potential of niosomes are also available in this review. Vaccine adjuvant and genetic substances vector capabilities are not given here.

Binding of a protein or a small polyelectrolyte onto synthetic vesicles

Catanionic vesicles were prepared by mixing nonstoichiometric amounts of sodium bis(2-ethylhexyl) sulfosuccinate and dioctyldimethylammonium bromide in water. Depending on the concentration and mole ratios between the surfactants, catanionic vesicular aggregates are formed. They have either negative or positive charges in excess and are endowed with significant thermodynamic and kinetic stability. Vesicle characterization was performed by dynamic light scattering and electrophoretic mobility. It was inferred that vesicle size scales in inverse proportion with its surface charge density and diverges as the latter quantity approaches zero and/or the mole ratio equals unity. Therefore, both variables are controlled by the anionic/cationic mole ratio. Small-angle X-ray scattering, in addition, indicates that vesicles are unilamellar. Selected anionic vesicular systems were reacted with poly-L-lysine hydrobromide or lysozyme. Polymer binding continues until complete neutralization of the negatively charged sites on the vesicles surface is attained, as inferred by electrophoretic mobility. Lipoplexes are formed as a result of significant electrostatic interactions between cationic polyelectrolytes and negatively charged vesicles.

Niosomes from 80s to present: the state of the art

Efficient and safe drug delivery has always been a challenge in medicine. The use of nanotechnology, such as the development of nanocarriers for drug delivery, has received great attention owing to the potential that nanocarriers can theoretically act as "magic bullets" and selectively target affected organs and cells while sparing normal tissues. During the last decades the formulation of surfactant vesicles, as a tool to improve drug delivery, brought an ever increasing interest among the scientists working in the area of drug delivery systems. Niosomes are self assembled vesicular nanocarriers obtained by hydration of synthetic surfactants and appropriate amounts of cholesterol or other amphiphilic molecules. Just like liposomes, niosomes can be unilamellar or multilamellar, are suitable as carriers of both hydrophilic and lipophilic drugs and are able to deliver drugs to the target site. Furthermore, niosomal vesicles, that are usually non-toxic, require less production costs and are stable over a longer period of time in different conditions, so overcoming some drawbacks of liposomes. The niosome properties are specifically dictated by size, shape, and surface chemistry which are able to modify the drug's intrinsic pharmacokinetics and eventual drug targeting to the areas of pathology. This up-to-date review deals with composition, preparation, characterization/evaluation, advantages, disadvantages and application of niosomes.

Interaction of pH-sensitive non-phospholipid liposomes with cellular mimetic membranes

Surfactant nanocarriers have received considerable attention in the last several years as interesting alternative to classic liposomes. Different pH-sensitive vesicular colloidal carriers based on Tween 20 derivatives, obtained after functionalization of the head groups of the surfactant with natural, or simply modified, amino acids, were proposed as drug nanocarriers. Dynamic light scattering, Small Angle X-ray Scattering, Trasmission Electron Microscopy and fluorescence studies were used for the physico-chemical characterization of vesicles and mean size, size distribution, zeta potential, vesicle morphology and bilayer properties were evaluated. The pH-sensitivity and the stability of formulations, in absence and in presence of foetal bovine serum, were also evaluated. Moreover, the contact between surfactant vesicles and liposomes designed to model the cellular membrane was investigated by fluorescence studies to preliminary explore the potential interaction between vesicle and cell membranes. Experimental findings showed that physico-chemical and technological features of pH-sensitive vesicles were influenced by the composition of the carriers. Furthermore, proposed carriers are able to interact with mimetic cell membrane and it is reasonable to attribute the observed differences in interaction to the architectural/structural properties of Tween 20 derivatives. The findings reported in this investigation showed that a deep and extensive physico-chemical characterization of the carrier is a fundamental step, according to the evidence that the knowledge of nanocarrier properties is necessary to translate its potentiality to in vitro/in vivo applications.