Impact of orphan status on HIV treatment outcomes and retention in care of children and adolescents in Asia

Loss to follow-up and its predictors among children living with HIV on antiretroviral therapy, southern Oromia, Ethiopia: a 5-year retrospective cohort study

BACKGROUND

Loss to follow-up (LTFU) among paediatric patients living with HIV presents a significant challenge to the global scale-up of life-saving antiretroviral therapy (ART).

OBJECTIVES

This study aims to estimate LTFU incidence and its determinants among children with HIV on ART in Shashemene town public health institutions, Oromia, Ethiopia.

DESIGN

A retrospective cohort study from 1 January 2015 to 30 December 2020.

SETTING

This study was conducted in Shashemene town, Oromia, Ethiopia.

PARTICIPANTS

Medical records of 269 children receiving ART at health facilities in Shashemene town were included.

METHODS

Data from patients' medical records were collected using a standardised checklist. EpiData V.3.1 was employed for data entry, while Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) V.25 facilitated analysis. The Kaplan-Meier survival curve was used for estimation of survival time. To measure association, adjusted HRs (AHRs) with 95% CIs were calculated. Both bivariable and multivariable Cox proportional hazards regression models were employed to identify predictors of LTFU.

RESULTS

Of the 269 children living with HIV included in the final analysis, 43 (16%) were lost to follow-up. The overall incidence rate of LTFU was 3.3 (95% CI 2.4 to 4.4) per 100 child-years of observation. Age less than 5 years (AHR 0.03, 95% CI 0.00 to 0.36), non-orphan status of the child (AHR 0.13, 95% CI 0.05 to 0.34), < 30 min distance to health facility (AHR 0.24, 95% CI 0.08 to 0.73), disclosed HIV status (AHR 0. 32, 95% CI 0.13 to 0.80), history of opportunistic infection (AHR 3.54, 95% CI 1.15 to 10.87) and low CD4 count (AHR 5.17, 95% CI 2.08 to 12.85) were significant predictors of LTFU.

CONCLUSION

The incidence rate of LTFU was lower compared with other studies in Ethiopia. This result indicated that age less than 5 years, non-orphans, low CD4, disclosed HIV status and distance from health facility were predictors of LTFU.

ART use and associated factors among HIV positive caregivers of orphans and vulnerable children in Tanzania

Background

Utilization of antiretroviral therapy (ART) is crucial for better health outcomes among people living with the human immunodeficiency virus (PLHIV). Nearly 30% of the 1.6 million PLHIV in Tanzania are not on treatment. Since HIV positive status is the only eligibility criterion for ART use, it is critical to understand the obstacles to ART access and uptake to reach universal coverage of ART among PLHIV. For the caregivers of orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) LHIV and not on ART, attempts to identify them and ensure that they initiate and continue using ART is critical for their wellbeing and their ability to care for their children.

Methods

Data are from the community-based, United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded Kizazi Kipya project that aims at scaling up the uptake of HIV/AIDS and other health and social services by orphans and vulnerable children (OVC) and their caregivers. HIV positive caregivers of OVC who were enrolled in the USAID Kizazi Kipya project between January 2017 and June 2018 were included in this cross-sectional study. The caregivers were drawn from 11 regions: Arusha, Iringa, Katavi, Kigoma, Mara, Mbeya, Morogoro, Ruvuma, Simiyu, Singida, and Tanga. The outcome variable was ART status (either using or not), which was enquired of each OVC caregiver LHIV at enrollment. Data analysis involved multivariable analysis using random-effects logistic regression to identify correlates of ART use.

Results

In total, 74,999 caregivers living with HIV with mean age of 44.4 years were analyzed. Of these, 96.4% were currently on ART at enrollment. In the multivariable analysis, ART use was 30% lower in urban than in rural areas (adjusted odds ratio (OR) = 0.70, 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.61–0.81). Food security improved the odds of being on ART (OR = 1.29, 95% CI 1.15–1.45). Disabled caregivers were 42% less likely than non-disabled ones to be on ART (OR = 0.58, 95% CI 0.45–0.76). Male caregivers with health insurance were 43% more likely than uninsured male caregivers to be on ART (OR = 1.43, 95% CI 1.11–1.83). Caregivers aged 40–49 years had 18% higher likelihood of being on ART than the youngest ones. Primary education level was associated with 26% increased odds of being on ART than no education (OR = 1.26, 95% CI 1.13–1.41).

Conclusions

Although nearly all the caregivers LHIV in the current study were on ART (96.4%), more efforts are needed to achieve universal coverage. The unreached segments of the population LHIV, even if small, may lead to worse health outcomes, and also spur further spread of the HIV epidemic due to unachieved viral suppression. Targeting caregivers in urban areas, food insecure households, who are uninsured, and those with mental or physical disability can improve ART coverage among caregivers LHIV.

A Longitudinal Study of Behavioral Risk, Adherence, and Virologic Control in Adolescents Living With HIV in Asia

BACKGROUND

Adolescents living with HIV (ALHIV) have poorer adherence and clinical outcomes than adults. We conducted a study to assess behavioral risks and antiretroviral therapy outcomes among ALHIV in Asia.

METHODS

A prospective cohort study among ALHIV and matched HIV-uninfected controls aged 12-18 years was conducted at 9 sites in Malaysia, Thailand, and Vietnam from July 2013 to March 2017. Participants completed an audio computer-assisted self-interview at weeks 0, 48, 96, and 144. Virologic failure (VF) was defined as ≥1 viral load (VL) measurement >1000 copies/mL. Generalized estimating equations were used to identify predictors for VF.

RESULTS

Of 250 ALHIV and 59 HIV-uninfected controls, 58% were Thai and 51% females. The median age was 14 years at enrollment; 93% of ALHIV were perinatally infected. At week 144, 66% of ALHIV were orphans vs. 28% of controls (P < 0.01); similar proportions of ALHIV and controls drank alcohol (58% vs. 65%), used inhalants (1% vs. 2%), had been sexually active (31% vs. 21%), and consistently used condoms (42% vs. 44%). Of the 73% of ALHIV with week 144 VL testing, median log VL was 1.60 (interquartile range 1.30-1.70) and 19% had VF. Over 70% of ALHIV had not disclosed their HIV status. Self-reported adherence ≥95% was 60% at week 144. Smoking cigarettes, >1 sexual partner, and living with nonparent relatives, a partner or alone, were associated with VF at any time.

CONCLUSIONS

The subset of ALHIV with poorer adherence and VF require comprehensive interventions that address sexual risk, substance use, and HIV-status disclosure.

Clinico-Epidemiological Profile of Children Orphaned due to AIDS Residing in Care Giving Institutions in Coastal South India

Background

HIV/AIDS has a greater impact on children. Besides being orphaned by the untimely demise of one or both parents due to the disease, these children are more prone for discrimination by the society.

Methods

In this cross-sectional study 86 children orphaned by AIDS residing in care giving institutions for HIV positive children in Mangalore were assessed for their clinico-epidemiological profile and nutritional status. Institutional Ethics Committee clearance was obtained before the commencement of the study. The collected data were analyzed using SPSS (Statistical Package for Social Sciences) version 11.5 and the results expressed in mean (standard deviation) and proportions. BMI was calculated and nutritional status assessed using WHO Z scores (BMI for Age) for children between 5 and 19 years separately for boys and girls.

Results

The mean age of the children was 13.2 ± 3 years. Majority (n = 56, 65.1%) of the children were double orphans. Most of the children orphaned by AIDS (n = 78, 90.7%) had a history of both the parents being HIV positive. The median CD4 count of participants at the time of our study was 853.5 (IQR 552–1092) cells/microliter. A higher percentage of orphans were malnourished compared to nonorphans. (41.1% vs. 36.7%). All the educational institutions, wherein the children orphaned by AIDS were enrolled, were aware about their HIV status. Five of the participants felt discriminated in their schools. Only two of the participants felt discriminated by their friends because of their HIV status.

Conclusion

From our study we draw conclusion that even though the children orphaned due to AIDS are rehabilitated in terms of having shelter and provision of education and health care, much needs to be done in terms of improving the nutritional status of these children and alleviating the discriminatory attitude of the society towards them.

Community health worker support to improve HIV treatment outcomes for older children and adolescents in Zimbabwe: a process evaluation of the ZENITH trial

Background

Community health worker (CHW)-delivered support visits to children living with HIV and their caregivers significantly reduced odds of virological failure among the children in the ZENITH trial conducted in Zimbabwe. We conducted a process evaluation to assess fidelity, acceptability, and feasibility of this intervention to identify lessons that could inform replication and scale-up of this approach.

Methods

Field manuals kept by each CHW, records from monthly supervisory meetings, and participant data collected throughout the trial were used to assess the intervention’s implementation. Data extracted from field manuals included visit type, content, and duration. Minutes from monthly supervisory meetings were used to capture CHW attendance.

Results

The trial enrolled 172 participants in the intervention arm of whom 5 subsequently refused all visits, 1 died before the intervention could be delivered, and 1 could not be located. Manuals for 8 participants were not returned, 3 were incorrectly entered, and 1 manual was lost. We had 154 manuals available for analysis.

A total of 1553 visits were successfully conducted (median 11 per participant, range 1–20). Additionally, CHWs made 85 visits where they were unable to make contact with the family. Thirteen (8.4%) participants received 5 or fewer visits, 10 moved out of the study area, and 3 died. CHWs discussed disclosure with the child/family for over 89% of participants and assisted clients with developing and reviewing their personal treatment plan with over 85% of participants. Of the 20 CHWs (3 male, 17 female) selected to implement the intervention, 19 were retained at the end of the trial.

Conclusions

The intervention was acceptable to participants with most receiving and accepting the required number of visits. Key strenghts were high staff retention and fidelity to the intervention. This community-based intervention was an acceptable and feasible approach to reduce virological failure among children living with HIV.

Trial registration

The ZENITH trial was registered on 25 October 2012 in the Pan African Clinical Trials Registry under the trial registration number PACTR201212000442288. It can be found at http://www.pactr.org/ATMWeb/appmanager/atm/atmregistry?dar=true&tNo=PACTR201212000442288.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1186/s13012-018-0762-5) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The effect of community-based support for caregivers on the risk of virological failure in children and adolescents with HIV in Harare, Zimbabwe (ZENITH): an open-label, randomised controlled trial

BACKGROUND

Children and adolescents have poorer HIV treatment outcomes than adults. We aimed to assess the effect of community-based support for caregivers of HIV-infected children and adolescents, who are key mediators to children engaging with care, on treatment outcomes.

METHODS

In this open-label, randomised contolled trial, we recruited children aged 6-15 years with newly-diagnosed HIV attending primary health-care clinics in Harare, Zimbabwe. Children were randomly assigned to receive decentralised primary health-care clinic-based HIV care (control group), according to national guidelines for 18 months, or decentralised care plus structured support visits by trained community health workers (intervention group) according to national guidelines for 18 months. Primary outcomes were the proportion of participants who died or had an HIV viral load of 400 copies per mL or higher at 12 months after antiretroviral therapy (ART) initiation (among those who started ART within 6 months of enrolment); and the proportion who missed two or more scheduled clinic visits by 18 months post-enrolment (among all participants). Analyses were complete-case, modified-intention-to-treat. This trial is registered with the Pan African Clinical Trials Registry, number PACTR201212000442288.

FINDINGS

Between January, 2013, and January, 2015, 470 participants tested HIV-positive at seven study primary health-care clinics and were screened for eligibility. Of the 334 eligible children and adolescents, 166 were randomly assigned to the intervention group and 168 to the control group. The median age of participants was 11 years (IQR 8-13) and 178 (53%) were girls. Among the 238 participants who started ART within 6 months of enrolment, the proportion who died or had a viral load of 400 copies/mL or higher at 12 months post-ART initiation was significantly lower in the intervention group than in the control group (31 [33%] of 94 participants vs 42 [49%] of 86 participants, respectively, adjusted odds ratio [aOR] 0·46, 95% CI 0·23-0·89; p=0·02). The proportion of children missing two or more scheduled visits was similar in the intervention group and control group (27 [17%] of 155 vs 30 [18%] of 165, aOR 0·92, 95% CI 0·49-1·74; p=0·79). One participant withdrew from the trial 240 days after enrolment and 12 died during follow-up (five in the intervention group; seven in the control group).

INTERPRETATION

Community-based support for caregivers has high potential for scalability and could have a substantial effect on HIV virological suppression in children and adolescents, a group with disproportionately poor treatment outcomes.

FUNDING

Wellcome Trust.