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Dharod JM, Labban JD, Tadese H, Flax VL, Black MM, Ammerman AS. Cyclic Formula Feeding Among Infants Participating in the Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children. J Nutr 2024; 154:2284-2289. [PMID: 38740186 PMCID: PMC11282495 DOI: 10.1016/j.tjnut.2024.05.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2024] [Revised: 04/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/08/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Low-income households often experience a cyclic pattern in food availability, with acute food shortages at month end. Variations in the monthly feeding of infant formula are understudied. OBJECTIVES This study aimed to compare the amount and frequency of formula consumed at the beginning and end of the monthly Special Supplemental Nutrition Program for Women, Infants, and Children (WIC) assistance cycle and test associations with total energy intake and other feeding practices among infants aged 7-11 mo. METHODS This study was conducted between May 2020 and April 2021 in the southeastern United States and involved mothers of infants participating in WIC's fully formula package. Mothers were interviewed and 24-h feeding recalls were conducted at the beginning and end of the month. We defined month beginning as 5 d following the first WIC formula purchase and month end as 5 d before the next monthly cycle. Fifty mother-infant dyads participated in single or multiple monthly cycles, totaling 98 monthly cycles. Generalized linear mixed-effects modeling was used to test differences in formula feeding at month beginning and end. RESULTS Most participants (84%) were African American or Latino and >90% purchased all formula within 2-3 d of the WIC issuance. The energy intake from formula at month beginning was significantly higher than at month end (67.63% and 57.85%, respectively; P = 0.002), with no differences in total energy intake. The odds of infants being fed cow milk and fruit juices/drinks increased from month beginning to end (P < 0.05). CONCLUSIONS Infants in low-income households are at risk of experiencing a cyclic feeding pattern characterized by higher formula feeding at month beginning and an increase in feeding of nonrecommended drinks at month end. The WIC program policy could review educational and distribution options to reduce cyclic formula feeding and clarify caregivers' understanding of infants' formula needs. Household-level investigations into formula management and determinants of cyclic feeding are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jigna M Dharod
- Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States.
| | - Jeffrey D Labban
- Office of Research in the School of Health and Human Sciences, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Helen Tadese
- Office of Research in the School of Health and Human Sciences, University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Greensboro, NC, United States
| | - Valerie L Flax
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States
| | - Maureen M Black
- RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC, United States; Department of Pediatrics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, United States
| | - Alice S Ammerman
- Department of Nutrition, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
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Garcia AL, Huang J, Wright CM. Associations between breastfeeding duration and adherence to complementary feeding recommendations in Scotland. MATERNAL & CHILD NUTRITION 2024; 20:e13633. [PMID: 38378946 PMCID: PMC11168353 DOI: 10.1111/mcn.13633] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2023] [Revised: 01/24/2024] [Accepted: 01/26/2024] [Indexed: 02/22/2024]
Abstract
We aimed to describe how breastfeeding relates to adherence to complementary feeding (CF) recommendations, diet diversification and feeding skills development and whether sociodemographic factors explain any differences observed. The Scottish Maternal Infant and Nutrition Survey for infants aged 8-12 months collected breastfeeding history, CF practices, diet and sociodemographic data using a self-completion questionnaire. Non-healthful CF practices were starting CF < 6 months, any consumption of sugar-sweetened beverages (SSBs), sweet or salty snacks (treats) or unmodified cow's milk and regular consumption of commercial baby foods. Diet diversification and feeding skills were assessed by amount of self-feeding and number of food groups, meals and snacks eaten daily. Of the 2730 mothers, 20% were solely infant formula fed (IFF) and 48% continued breastfeeding ≥6 months. Compared to IFF babies, mothers who gave any breast milk ≥6 months were more likely to start CF ≥ 6 months compared to those IFF (66% vs. 37%) and less likely to give treats (15% vs. 45%), SSBs (11% vs. 20%) and commercial baby foods (31% vs. 53%). These associations remained highly significant (p < 0.001) even after sociodemographic factor adjustment. Despite starting CF later, infants breastfed ≥6 months ate the same number of food groups and meals as those IFF, were just as likely to self-feed purees and more likely to self-feed finger foods daily (87% vs. 81% p < 0.001). Mothers who breastfeed beyond 6 months adhere more to CF recommendations and start CF later compared to IFF, but their babies eat a similarly diverse diet and have similar feeding skills.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ada L. Garcia
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry & NursingUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Jiali Huang
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry & NursingUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
| | - Charlotte M. Wright
- Human Nutrition, School of Medicine, Dentistry & NursingUniversity of GlasgowGlasgowUK
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Nansel TR, Schwedhelm C, Lipsky LM, Faith MS, Siega-Riz AM. Socioeconomic Characteristics and the Home Food Environment Are Associated With Feeding Healthful and Discretionary Foods During the First Year of Life in the Pregnancy Eating Attributes Study. J Acad Nutr Diet 2024:S2212-2672(24)00249-1. [PMID: 38777149 DOI: 10.1016/j.jand.2024.05.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2023] [Revised: 05/14/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 05/25/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Feeding of nutrient-poor foods begins in infancy and may adversely influence long-term food preferences. OBJECTIVE To examine associations of socioeconomic characteristics, childbearing parent eating behaviors, and home food environment with infant feeding characteristics. DESIGN Secondary analysis of a prospective cohort study from first trimester of pregnancy through 12 months postpartum. PARTICIPANTS/SETTING Participants with uncomplicated singleton pregnancies and no major chronic illness were enrolled from November 2014 through October 2016 from 2 university-based obstetrics clinics in Chapel Hill, NC. Of 458 enrolled, 321 were retained through 12 months postpartum. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Participants completed infant food frequency questionnaires indicating age at introduction and frequency of consuming multiple food groups. Exposures included childbearing parent socioeconomic characteristics, hedonic hunger, addictive-like eating, Healthy Eating Index 2015 calculated from three 24-hour diet recalls, and home food environment fruit/vegetable and obesogenic scores. STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED Multiple imputation using Heckman selection model; linear and logistic regressions examining associations with infant feeding characteristics. RESULTS Lower education and income were associated with later infant age at introduction to, and lower frequency of consuming fruits and vegetables at age 12 months. Socioeconomic characteristics were not associated with age at introduction to discretionary solid foods; however, lower education and income were associated with greater infant frequency of intake of discretionary foods and greater odds of introducing fruit juice and sweetened beverages by age 12 months. Childbearing parent Healthy Eating Index 2015, hedonic hunger, and addictive-like eating were not consistently associated with infant feeding characteristics. A more obesogenic food environment was associated with greater frequency of intake of discretionary foods, lower frequency of intake of fruit, and greater odds of fruit juice introduction by age 12 months. CONCLUSIONS Infant feeding characteristics may be important intervention targets for addressing socioeconomic disparities in child diet quality. Efforts to reduce routine feeding of discretionary foods across socioeconomic groups are needed; modifying the home food environment may promote healthful infant feeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tonja R Nansel
- Social and Behavioral Sciences Branch, Division of Population Health Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland.
| | - Carolina Schwedhelm
- Max-Delbrück Center for Molecular Medicine in the Helmholtz Association, Molecular Epidemiology Research Group, Berlin, Germany
| | - Leah M Lipsky
- Social and Behavioral Sciences Branch, Division of Population Health Research, Eunice Kennedy Shriver National Institute of Child Health and Human Development, Bethesda, Maryland
| | - Myles S Faith
- Department of Counseling, School, and Educational Psychology, Graduate School of Education, University at Buffalo- SUNY, Buffalo, New York
| | - Anna Maria Siega-Riz
- Epidemiology and Biostatistics, School of Public Health and Health Sciences, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, Massachusetts
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Nantel A, Gingras V. Are Complementary Feeding Practices Aligned with Current Recommendations? A Narrative Review. CHILDREN (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2023; 10:children10050794. [PMID: 37238342 DOI: 10.3390/children10050794] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/19/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
The complementary feeding introduction period (introduction of solid foods alongside breastmilk or formula) is defining in children's health; however, it appears that many parents do not follow complementary feeding guidelines. Our aim was to describe current parental feeding practices during complementary feeding in relation to current recommendations and explore determinants of adherence to guidelines. We included any relevant studies published within the last decade in French or English and summarized findings by recommendation category. The timing of complementary food introduction varied widely across and within continents (earlier in North America and often delayed in Asia). The introduction of allergenic foods tended to be delayed globally. Although some parents now begin complementary feeding with solid foods (i.e., baby-led weaning), delayed introduction of lumpy textures was still prevalent in the United States and in Europe. The consumption of iron-rich foods was predominantly low in Africa. Added sugars were globally introduced early, especially in America. Evidence for the prevalence of responsive feeding practices among parents is unclear due to the small number of studies. Determinants of complementary feeding practices included parental characteristics, such as age, education, socio-economic status, and race/ethnicity. Interventions aiming to increase adherence to complementary feeding guidelines must account for parental characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Audrey Nantel
- Department of Nutrition, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1A8, Canada
- Research Center of the Sainte-Justine University Hospital, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
| | - Véronique Gingras
- Department of Nutrition, Université de Montréal, Montreal, QC H3T 1A8, Canada
- Research Center of the Sainte-Justine University Hospital, Montreal, QC H3T 1C5, Canada
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Pathirana MM, Ali A, Lassi ZS, Arstall MA, Roberts CT, Andraweera PH. Protective Influence of Breastfeeding on Cardiovascular Risk Factors in Women With Previous Gestational Diabetes Mellitus and Their Children: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. J Hum Lact 2022; 38:501-512. [PMID: 34609211 DOI: 10.1177/08903344211034779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is evidence that breastfeeding may provide protection against cardiovascular risk factors in mothers with a history of gestational diabetes mellitus and their children who were exposed in utero. RESEARCH AIM To perform a systematic review and meta-analysis of observational studies to ascertain the effects of breastfeeding on cardiovascular risk factors in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus and their children exposed in utero. METHODS Studies assessing conventional cardiovascular risk factors in women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus and children exposed in utero stratified by breastfeeding/no breastfeeding or breastfed/not breastfed were included. Gestational diabetes mellitus was defined based on the International Association of Diabetes in Pregnancy Study Group definition or previous accepted definitions. Breastfeeding was defined as reported in each study. RESULTS The literature search yielded 260 titles, of which 17 studies were selected to be in the review. Women with previous gestational diabetes mellitus who did not breastfeed had higher blood glucose (SMD: 0.32, 95% CI [0.12, 0.53]) and a greater risk of developing Type 2 diabetes mellitus (RR: 2.08 95% CI [1.44, 3.00]) compared to women with no history. There were not enough studies to conduct a meta-analysis on the effects of breastfeeding on risk factors for cardiovascular disease among children exposed to gestational diabetes mellitus in utero. CONCLUSION Breastfeeding appears to be protective against cardiovascular risk factors among women who experience gestational diabetes mellitus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maleesa M Pathirana
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Anna Ali
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Health Performance and Policy Research Unit, Basil Hetzel Institute, University of Adelaide, Woodville South, SA, Australia.,Adelaide G-TRAC Centre & CRE Frailty & Healthy Ageing Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Zohra S Lassi
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Margaret A Arstall
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Department of Cardiology, Lyell McEwin Hospital, Elizabeth Vale, SA, Australia
| | - Claire T Roberts
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | - Prabha H Andraweera
- Adelaide Medical School and Robinson Research Institute, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, Adelaide Medical School, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, SA, Australia.,Flinders Health and Medical Research Institute, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
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Thompson HR, Borger C, Paolicelli C, Whaley SE, Reat A, Ritchie L. The Relationship between Breastfeeding and Initial Vegetable Introduction with Vegetable Consumption in a National Cohort of Children Ages 1–5 Years from Low-Income Households. Nutrients 2022; 14:nu14091740. [PMID: 35565708 PMCID: PMC9101240 DOI: 10.3390/nu14091740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2022] [Revised: 04/20/2022] [Accepted: 04/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Compared to other food groups, vegetable intakes are lowest relative to recommendations. Breastfeeding and initial introduction to vegetables may help infants establish long-lasting taste preferences. We examined the relationship between breastfeeding and initial vegetable introduction and vegetable intake in early childhood (ages 13–60 months). This repeated cross-sectional study used data from the national WIC Infant and Toddler Feeding Practices Study-2 collected from low-income mother/caregivers about infants from around birth through age 5 (60 months; n = 3773). Survey-weighted adjusted regression models assessed associations between breastfeeding and vegetable introduction measures with vegetable consumption at child ages 13, 24, 36, 48, and 60 months. Longer breastfeeding duration was associated with a slightly, but significantly, greater variety of vegetables consumed/day in early childhood. There was also a small but positive statistically significant association between the number of different types of vegetables consumed on a given day at 9 months and the amount and variety of vegetables consumed/day in early childhood. Age of initial vegetables introduction and whether vegetables were the first/second food introduced were not consistently related to the amount or variety of vegetables consumed later in childhood. Longer breastfeeding and introduction to a greater variety of vegetables at 9 months may be behaviors to target to increase consumption of a greater variety of vegetables by young children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hannah R. Thompson
- Community Health Sciences, School of Public Health, University of California, 2121 Berkeley Way, 6120, Berkeley, CA 94720, USA
- Nutrition Policy Institute, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California, 1111 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Oakland, CA 94706, USA;
- Correspondence:
| | | | - Courtney Paolicelli
- USDA Food and Nutrition Service, 1320 Braddock Place, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA; (C.P.); (A.R.)
| | - Shannon E. Whaley
- Public Health Foundation Enterprises WIC, Division of Research and Evaluation, 12781 Schabarum Avenue, Irwindale, CA 91706, USA;
| | - Amanda Reat
- USDA Food and Nutrition Service, 1320 Braddock Place, Alexandria, VA 22314, USA; (C.P.); (A.R.)
| | - Lorrene Ritchie
- Nutrition Policy Institute, Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California, 1111 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Oakland, CA 94706, USA;
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Ventura AK, Phelan S, Silva Garcia K. Maternal Diet During Pregnancy and Lactation and Child Food Preferences, Dietary Patterns, and Weight Outcomes: a Review of Recent Research. Curr Nutr Rep 2021; 10:413-426. [PMID: 34383279 DOI: 10.1007/s13668-021-00366-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW Efforts to promote children's preferences for healthy foods hold much potential for improving diet quality and preventing obesity. The purpose of this review was to summarize recent evidence for associations between maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation and child food preferences, dietary patterns, and weight outcomes. RECENT FINDINGS Recent research illustrates greater maternal vegetable intakes during pregnancy and lactation predict greater child preferences for and intakes of vegetables. Recent randomized clinical trials to improve maternal weight outcomes during the perinatal period via behavioral lifestyle interventions that included dietary components have yielded mixed findings for effects on child weight outcomes. There is strong evidence that maternal diet during pregnancy and lactation shapes flavor preferences during infancy; more research is needed to understand factors that facilitate versus hinder the translation of these preferences to later dietary patterns and weight outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alison K Ventura
- Department of Kinesiology and Public Health, Center for Health Research, California Polytechnic State University, One Grand Ave, San Luis Obispo, CA, 93407, USA.
| | - Suzanne Phelan
- Department of Kinesiology and Public Health, Center for Health Research, California Polytechnic State University, One Grand Ave, San Luis Obispo, CA, 93407, USA
| | - Karina Silva Garcia
- Department of Kinesiology and Public Health, Center for Health Research, California Polytechnic State University, One Grand Ave, San Luis Obispo, CA, 93407, USA
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Liu X, Zhou Q, Clarke K, Younger KM, An M, Li Z, Tan Y, Kearney JM. Maternal feeding practices and toddlers' fruit and vegetable consumption: results from the DIT-Coombe Hospital birth cohort in Ireland. Nutr J 2021; 20:84. [PMID: 34666760 PMCID: PMC8524861 DOI: 10.1186/s12937-021-00743-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2021] [Accepted: 10/07/2021] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Health benefits of fruit and vegetable have been well recognized. However, insufficient consumption of fruit and vegetable is prevalent among toddlers, and has become a global public health issue. Maternal feeding practices are potential factors influencing toddlers’ dietary intake, including fruit and vegetable intake. This study was conducted to explore the influence of maternal feeding practices on toddlers’ fruit and vegetable consumption in Ireland. Methods A follow-up to the DIT-Coombe Hospital birth cohort was conducted. Mothers in the original cohort were invited to participate in the present follow-up study by phone. A questionnaire assessing maternal feeding behavior and the child’s 3-day food diary was sent to mothers who agreed to take part in the present study by post, together with a self-addressed stamped envelope. Results There were 193 mother-children pairs included in the analysis, and the mean age of children was 2.4 (SD 0.7) years old. Toddlers’ mean daily intakes of vegetable and fruit were 67.57 (SD 45.95) g and 213.35 (SD 170.78) g, respectively. Logistic regression analyses showed that maternal practice of breastfeeding for more than 4 weeks was positively associated with fruit (OR = 2.93, 95% CI: 1.29–6.64) and vegetable (OR = 1.95, 95% CI: 1.00–3.81) intake or the contribution of fruit (OR = 2.62, 95% CI: 1.19–5.80) and vegetable (OR = 2.02, 95% CI: 1.02–3.99) to the total diet. Letting the child eat with other family members was associated with high vegetable intake (OR = 5.45, 95%CI: 1.69–17.61) and high contribution of vegetable to total diet (OR = 3.78, 95% CI: 1.04–13.82). Not being too worried about the child’s refusal to eat was positively associated with toddlers’ vegetable intake (OR = 2.10, 95%CI: 1.09–4.05). Conclusions To increase children’s fruit and vegetable intake, and develop good eating habits, parents should eat with their toddlers, be patient and not put much pressure on their children in the context of meal feeding. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12937-021-00743-z.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiyao Liu
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Qianling Zhou
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing, China.
| | - Keara Clarke
- School of Biological Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Katherine M Younger
- School of Biological Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Meijing An
- Department of Maternal and Child Health, School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | | | - Yang Tan
- Shijiazhuang Foreign Language School, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
| | - John M Kearney
- School of Biological Sciences, Technological University Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
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Chawner LR, Hetherington MM. Utilising an integrated approach to developing liking for and consumption of vegetables in children. Physiol Behav 2021; 238:113493. [PMID: 34116053 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2021.113493] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Revised: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 06/04/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Children eat too few vegetables and this is attributed to disliked flavours and texture as well as low energy density. Vegetables confer selective health benefits over other foods and so children are encouraged to eat them. Parents and caregivers face a challenge in incorporating vegetables into their child's habitual diet. However, liking and intake may be increased through different forms of learning. Children learn about vegetables across development from exposure to some vegetable flavours in utero, through breastmilk, complementary feeding and transitioning to family diets. Infants aged between 5 and 7 m are most amenable to accepting vegetables. However, a range of biological, social, environmental and individual factors may act independently and in tandem to reduce the appeal of eating vegetables. By applying aspects of learning theory, including social learning, liking and intake of vegetables can be increased. We propose taking an integrated and individualised approach to child feeding in order to achieve optimal learning in the early years. Simple techniques such as repeated exposure, modelling, social praise and creating social norms for eating vegetables can contribute to positive feeding experiences which in turn, contributes to increased acceptance of vegetables. However, there is a mismatch between experimental studies and the ways that children eat vegetables in real world settings. Therefore, current knowledge of the best strategies to increase vegetable liking and intake gained from experimental studies must be adapted and integrated for application to home and care settings, while responding to individual differences.
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Affiliation(s)
- L R Chawner
- School of Psychology, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
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