Functional outcome at 5 years in children with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy with and without microsurgical reconstruction

The assisting hand assessment for children and youth with brachial plexus birth injury: a study of validity and item hierarchy of AHA-Plex

OBJECTIVE

Functional assessments that focus on activity performance and that produce valid outcome measures for people with brachial plexus birth injury are lacking. The primary aim of this study was to re-evaluate the internal scale validity of the Assisting Hand Assessment specifically for children and adolescents with brachial plexus birth injury. Two further aims were investigating whether the scale could be shortened for this group while maintaining psychometric quality, and exploring and presenting its item difficulty hierarchy.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional psychometric study.

SUBJECTS

A convenience sample of 105 children and adolescents (aged 18 months to 18 years, mean 6 years, 7 months, standard deviation (SD) 4 years, 4 months) from Sweden, Norway, and the Netherlands with brachial plexus birth injury.

METHODS

Participants were assessed with the Assisting Hand Assessment. Data were analysed with Rasch measurement analysis.

RESULTS

The 20 Assisting Hand Assessment items together measured a unidimensional construct with high reliability (0.97) and the 4-level rating scale functioned well. Item reduction resulted in 15 items with good item fit, unidimensionality, reliability and acceptable targeting.

CONCLUSION

Assisting Hand Assessment for people with brachial plexus birth injury, called AHA-Plex, has 15 items and good internal scale validity. A unique item hierarchy for people with brachial plexus birth injury is presented.

Tactile Perception of the Hand in Children With an Upper Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy

OBJECTIVE

To investigate factors that cause impairment of hand function in children with an upper Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy (NBPP), we performed an in-depth analysis of tactile hand sensibility, especially the ability to correctly localize a sensory stimulus on their fingers.

DESIGN

A cross-sectional investigation of children with NBPP, compared with healthy controls. The thickest Semmes-Weinstein (SW) monofilament was pressed on the radial or ulnar part of each fingertip (10 regions), while a screen prevented seeing the hand.

SETTING

Tertiary referral center for nerve lesions in an academic hospital in The Netherlands. The control group was recruited at their school.

PARTICIPANTS

Forty-one children with NBPP (mean age 10.0 y) and 25 controls (mean age 9.5 y; N=41).

INTERVENTIONS

Not applicable.

MAIN OUTCOMES MEASURES

Correct localization of the applied stimuli was evaluated, per region, per finger, and per dermatome with a test score. The affected side of the NBPP group was compared with the non-dominant hand of the controls.

RESULTS

The ability to localize stimuli on the tips of the fingers in children with an upper NBPP was significantly diminished in all fingers, except for the little finger, as compared with healthy controls. Mean localization scores were 6.6 (thumb) and 6.3 (index finger) in the NBPP group and 7.6 in both fingers for controls (maximum score possible is 8.0). Localization scores were significant lower in regions attributed to dermatomes C6 (P<.001) and C7 (P=.001), but not to C8 (P=.115).

CONCLUSION

Children with an upper NBPP showed a diminished and incorrect ability to localize sensory stimuli to their fingers. This finding is likely 1 of the factors underlying the impairment of hand function and should be addressed with sensory focused therapy.

Increased incidence of shoulder dystocia but a declining incidence of obstetric brachial plexus palsy in vaginally delivered infants

INTRODUCTION

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) is a serious form of neonatal morbidity. The primary aim of this population-based registry study was to examine temporal trends, 1997-2019, of OBPP in infants delivered vaginally in a cephalic presentation. The secondary aim was to examine temporal changes in the incidence of associated risk factors.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

This was a population-based registry study including singleton, cephalic, vaginally delivered infants, 1997-2019, in Sweden. To compare changes in the incidence rates of OBPP and associated risk factors over time, univariate logistic regression was used and odds ratios (OR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI) were calculated.

RESULTS

The incidence of OBPP in infants delivered vaginally in a cephalic presentation decreased from 3.1 per 1000 births in 1997 to 1.0 per 1000 births in 2019 (OR 0.31, 95% CI 0.24-0.40). Conversely, the incidence of shoulder dystocia increased from 2.0 per 1000 in 1997 to 3.3 per 1000 in 2019 (OR 1.64, 95% CI 1.34-2.01). Over time, the proportion of women with body mass index of 30 kg/m² or greater increased (14.5% in 2019 compared with 8.0% in year 1997, OR 1.96, 95% CI 1.89-2.03), more women had induction of labor (20.5% in 2019 compared with 8.6% in 1997, OR 2.74, 95% CI 2.66-2.83) and epidural analgesia (41.2% in 2019 compared with 29.0% in 1997, OR 1.72, 95% CI 1.68-1.75). In contrast, there was a decrease in the rate of operative vaginal delivery (6.0% in 2019, compared with 8.1% in 1997, OR 0.72, 95% CI 0.69, 0.75) and in the proportion of infants with a birthweight greater than 4500 g (2.7% in 2019 compared with 3.8% in 1997, OR 0.70, 95% CI 0.66-0.74). The decline in the incidence of these two risk factors explained only a small fraction of the overall decrease in OBPP between 1997-2002 and 2015-219.

CONCLUSIONS

The incidence of OBPP in vaginally delivered infants in a cephalic presentation at birth decreased during the period 1997-2019 despite an increase in important risk factors including shoulder dystocia.

Brachial Plexus Birth Injury: A Review of Neurology Literature Assessing Variability and Current Recommendations

BACKGROUND

Publications regarding the epidemiology and management of brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI) were evaluated to investigate treatment guidelines for children with BPBI.

METHODS

A search of neurology literature from 1990 to 2019 was performed using PubMed, Scopus, and Medline. Data including incidence, risk factors, spontaneous recovery rates, imaging studies, treatment recommendations, and indications and timing for surgery were collected.

RESULTS

A total of 46 total studies were reviewed. Reported incidence rates for BPBI ranged from 0.3 to 3 per 1000 births. Spontaneous recovery rates had an average reported range from 66% to 75%. Physical and occupational therapy were recommended in 37% of articles. Computed tomographic myelogram and magnetic resonance imaging of the brachial plexus were the most commonly recommended imaging studies for BPBI. Timelines for surgical interventions ranged from age three to nine months. Early referral was recommended in 28% of the articles included in the review.

CONCLUSIONS

Given the inconsistencies in spontaneous recovery rates, imaging recommendations, and timing of referral, establishing consistent clinical guidelines for patients with BPBI is crucial for management. Early referral to specialists for evaluation and treatment may improve outcomes in children with BPBI.

Treatment of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy sequelae: Preliminary results about 18 cases

Background

Severe obstetrical injuries of the brachial plexus lead to a complete or incomplete paralysis resulting in a significant functional handicap of the limb.This study aimed to assess the preliminary results of our management.

Materials and methods

This prospective study involved 18 patients, with an average age of 7.7 years. The choice of the surgical technique depended on the type of palsy. We evaluated our patients using the Mallet, Gilbert-Raimondi, Brachial plexus World Group Heerlen, and Raimondi scores.

Results

Patients in groups I and II of Narakas had an anterior shoulder release (n = 2) and transfer of the latissimus dorsi (n = 8). For those in group III, we performed 5 biceps rerouting and 2 radius derotation osteotomies, one of which was associated with a Zancolli I and an arthrodesis of the thumb MCP joint. In the wrist and hand, we performed two tendon transfers from the flexor carpi ulnaris to the extensor tendons of the fingers.After a mean follow-up of 30.52 months, in the first 9 patients, active external rotation of the shoulder increased from a mean value of -22.5°-38.8° and mean active abduction from 78.3° to 141.1°. In Group III, the mean spontaneous supination position of 75.5° was improved to 45° pronation. Regarding the two patients with tendon transfers, active wrist extension increased from 0° to 45° and from -60° to 0°, respectively.

Conclusion

Palliative surgery in the treatment obstetrical brachial plexus palsy sequelae retains an important place in the restoration of upper limb function.

Quantifying long-term upper-limb activity using wearable motion sensors after nerve reconstruction for neonatal brachial plexus palsy

OBJECTIVE

Standard, physician-elicited clinical assessment tools for the evaluation of function after nerve reconstruction for neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) do not accurately reflect real-world arm function. Wearable activity monitors allow for the evaluation of patient-initiated, spontaneous arm movement during activities of daily living. In this pilot study, the authors demonstrate the feasibility of using body-worn sensor technology to quantify spontaneous arm movement in children with NBPP 10 years after nerve reconstruction and report the timing and magnitude of recovered arm movement.

METHODS

Eight children with NBPP who underwent brachial plexus reconstruction approximately 10 years prior were recruited to take part in this single-institution prospective pilot study. Per the treatment protocol of the authors' institution, operated patients had severe, nonrecovering nerve function at the time of surgery. The patients were fitted with an activity monitoring device on each of the affected and unaffected arms, which were worn for 7 consecutive days. The duration (VT) and power (VM) with which each arm moved during the patient's normal daily activities were extracted from the accelerometry data and ratios comparing the affected and unaffected arms were calculated. Demographic data and standard physician-elicited clinical measures of upper-extremity function were also collected.

RESULTS

Three children underwent nerve grafting and transfer and 5 children underwent graft repair only. The mean (± SD) active range of motion was 98° ± 53° for shoulder abduction, 130° ± 24° for elbow flexion, and 39° ± 34° for shoulder external rotation. The median Medical Research Council grade was at least 2.5 for all muscle groups. The median Mallet grade was at least 2 for all categories, and 13.5 total. The VT ratio was 0.82 ± 0.08 and the VM ratio was 0.53 ± 0.12.

CONCLUSIONS

Wearable activity monitors such as accelerometers can be used to quantify spontaneous arm movement in children who underwent nerve reconstruction for NBPP at long-term follow-up. These data more accurately reflect complex, goal-oriented movement needed to perform activities of daily living. Notably, despite severe, nonrecovering nerve function early in life, postsurgical NBPP patients use their affected arms more than 80% of the time that they use their unaffected arms, paralleling results in patients with NBPP who recovered spontaneously. These data represent the first long-term, real-world evidence to support brachial plexus reconstruction for patients with NBPP.

Evidence that nerve surgery improves functional outcome for obstetric brachial plexus injury

The majority of children with obstetric brachial plexus injury show some degree of spontaneous recovery. This review explores the available evidence for the use surgical brachial plexus repair to improve outcome. So far, no randomized trial has been performed to evaluate the usefulness of nerve repair. The evidence level of studies comparing surgical treatment with non-surgical treatment is Level IV at best. The studies on natural history that are used for comparison with surgical series are also, unfortunately, of too low quality. Among experts, however, the general agreement is that nerve reconstruction is indicated when spontaneous recovery is absent or severely delayed at specific time points. A major obstacle in comparing or pooling obstetric brachial plexus injury patient series, either surgical or non-surgical, is the use of many different outcome measures. A requirement for multicentre studies is consensus on how to assess and report outcome, both concerning motor performance and functional evaluation.

Onabotulinum toxin type A injection into the triceps unmasks elbow flexion in infant brachial plexus birth palsy: A retrospective observational cohort study

Brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) is a neurologic injury that can result in mild to full paralysis of the affected upper extremity. In severe cases, nerve surgery is often performed before age 1 year. Several studies report gains in elbow flexion with onabotulinum toxin type A (OBTT-A) injections to the triceps; however, its use in infants is not widely reported. The purpose of this study is to present our experience using these injections before 6 months of age to therapeutically unmask elbow flexion and diagnostically guide surgical decision making.This is a retrospective observational cohort study. The cohort included infants with BPBP who received OBTT-A injection to the triceps before age 6 months. Indications for the injections include trace elbow flexion and palpable co-contraction of the biceps and triceps. Elbow flexion was evaluated using the Toronto Test score. Therapeutic success was defined as an increase in post-injection scores. These scores were then used diagnostically as an indication for surgery if the infant did not achieve full elbow flexion by 8 months. A treatment algorithm for OBTT-A triceps injection was developed based on all treatment options offered to infants with elbow flexion deficits seen in the clinic.Of the 12 infants that received OBTT-A triceps injections, 10 (83%) had improved Toronto test elbow flexion scores post-injection. Gains in elbow flexion once attained were maintained. Of the 9 OBTT-A infants with at least 2 years follow-up, 4 achieved full elbow flexion without surgery; the remainder after surgery. No complications with OBTT-A injections were noted and patients were followed on average 6 years. The average age at time of injection was 4 months (range: 2-5 months). Compared to other treatments given, OBTT-A infants tended to present with more elbow flexion than the 4 infants requiring immediate surgical intervention and less elbow flexion than the 16 infants treated conservatively.OBTT-A injection to the triceps in infants with BPBP before 6 months of age therapeutically improved elbow flexion and diagnostically guided surgical decisions when full elbow flexion was not achieved by 8 months of age with no known complications.

Integrated Electromyography: Discriminant Analysis and Prediction of Recovery 3 to 6 Years After Brachial Plexus Birth Injury

PURPOSE

To assess the recovery likelihood, 3 to 6 years after brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI), and predict the functional recovery from integrated electromyography (IEMG).

METHODS

Thirty children with BPBI limited to C5-C6 lesion participated. Maximal electromyography activity of deltoid and biceps brachii was measured at entry. Shoulder and elbow functions were assessed at the baseline and at 4 intervals across 2 years.

RESULTS

Shoulder and elbow function significantly changed across the follow-up period. Shoulder and elbow functions were significantly dependent on deltoid and biceps brachii muscles' IEMG level, respectively, with the groups showing higher IEMG achieving better recovery. The deltoid and biceps IEMG explained a portion of the improvement in shoulder and elbow function over 2 years.

CONCLUSION

Recovery of the shoulder and elbow function continues 3 to 6 years after BPBI. IEMG may partially explain variation in the prognosis for children with BPBI.

Health-care use and information needs of children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy: A cross-sectional survey among 465 Dutch patients

To investigate health-care use (HCU) and information needs of children aged 0-18 years with neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP), a cross-sectional study was performed. Patients and/or parents seen in our NBPP clinic were invited to complete a survey comprising questions on HCU due to NBPP and current information needs. Outcomes were described for three age-groups (0-1/2-9/10-18 years), based on follow-up status (early/late/no-discharge). Four hundred sixty-five parents/patients participated (59 in the 0-1, 226 in the 2-9, and 180 in the 10-18-year group). Two hundred ninety-three patients had C5-C6 lesions, 193 were discharged from follow-up, 83 of whom categorized as 'early discharged' (<1 year of age). Over the past year, 198 patients had contact with the expert team (49 in the 0-1, 81 in the 2-9, and 68 in the 10-18-year group) and 288 with at least one other health-care professional (53 in the 0-1, 133 in the 2-9, and 102 in the 10-18-year group). Of the 83 patients discharged early, 34 reported health-care use. Two hundred twenty-eight participants reported current information needs of whom 23 were discharged early. HCU and information needs of Dutch children with NBPP remains considerable even in children who were discharged. Stricter follow-up and information provision for these patients is needed.

The effects of modified constraint-induced movement therapy combined with intensive bimanual training in children with brachial plexus birth injury: a retrospective data base study

BACKGROUND

In children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury, a non-use of the affected upper limb despite sufficient capacity, is sometimes observed, called developmental disregard. The combination of modified constraint-induced-movement-therapy with bimanual training is frequently applied to overcome developmental disregard in unilateral Cerebral Palsy. In the current study the effects of the combination of modified constraint-induced-movement-therapy with bimanual training are investigated in children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury in comparison to children with unilateral Cerebral Palsy. We hypothesize that the combination of modified constraint-induced-movement-therapy with bimanual training is effective in Brachial Plexus Birth Injury.

METHODS

Data of 19 children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury (M_age: 4.1 years) and 18 with unilateral Cerebral Palsy (M_age: 4.5 years) were compared. The effects of modified constraint-induced-movement-therapy with bimanual training (54 h modified constraint-induced-movement-therapy, 18 h bimanual training, 8-10 weeks) was investigated by assessing spontaneous affected-upper-limb-use ("Assisting Hand Assessment"), manual abilities ("ABILHAND-kids") and subjective performance and satisfaction of problematic bimanual activities ("Canadian Occupational Performance Measure") at three time points (pre-treatment, post-treatment, follow-up). This data was analyzed using repeated-measures analysis.

RESULTS

Children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury showed significant improvements on all outcome measures following modified constraint-induced-movement-therapy with bimanual training. These results were comparable to those observed in the group of children with unilateral Cerebral Palsy.

DISCUSSION

These results suggest that modified constraint-induced-movement-therapy with bimanual training is effective in Brachial Plexus Birth Injury. They indicate a comparable improved bimanual performance in children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury than in unilateral Cerebral Palsy and suggests that both groups of children have affectively overcome their developmental disregard.IMPLICATIONS FOR REHABILITATIONChildren with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury frequently experience difficulties in activities of daily living.It has recently been suggested that children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury may also show a non-use of the affected upper limb despite sufficient capacity, called developmental disregard.Children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury and developmental disregard might therefore benefit from intensive therapies aimed at overcoming developmental disregard, originally developed for children with unilateral Cerebral Palsy.A combination of modified Constrained-Induced Movement Therapy with intensive Bimanual Training has shown to be affective in children with unilateral Cerebral Palsy.In a small sample, this study shows that a combination of modified Constrained-Induced Movement Therapy with intensive bimanual training is effective in children with Brachial Plexus Birth Injury, comparable and even more than in unilateral Cerebral Palsy.

Sensory Outcome in Children Following Microsurgery for Brachial Plexus Birth Injury

PURPOSE

Studies are limited on sensory outcome in children with brachial plexus birth injury (BPBI). The purpose of this research was to evaluate the sensory function of the hand in children with BPBI who had microsurgical reconstruction of the brachial plexus.

METHODS

The sensory thresholds of children with upper and total plexus injury were evaluated with the Weinstein Enhanced Sensory Test and a test of stereognosis.

RESULTS

A total of 63 children participated (aged 10.92 ± 3.29 years), 24 (38%) of whom had abnormal sensory thresholds in the affected hand. Only 4 children had loss of protective sensation or higher thresholds. These 4 measurements were all identified in the territory of the superficial branch of the radial nerve. Twelve children with upper plexus (43%) and 12 (34%) with total plexus injury had sensory impairment in the affected hand. These proportions were not statistically different. Of all children evaluated, 18 (29%) had a lower stereognosis score in the affected hand compared with the unaffected hand. The proportions of children with impairment in stereognosis in the upper plexus group (n = 5; 18%) versus the total plexus group (n = 13; 37%) were not statistically different. Age at the time of assessment, sex, upper versus total plexus injury, number of root avulsions, subjective report of altered sensation, and Faces Pain Scale-Revised score were not related to sensory impairment in the affected hand.

CONCLUSIONS

Sensory recovery in BPBI after microsurgical reconstruction in children with total plexus injury who had reconstruction of the lower trunk had the potential to achieve sensory recovery similar to their upper plexus counterparts. A large proportion of children achieve normal sensory outcome, and those who had deficits had mild impairments.

TYPE OF STUDY/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Prognostic IV.

Outcomes from primary surgical reconstruction of neonatal brachial plexus palsy in 104 children

PURPOSE

The outcome from microsurgical reconstruction of neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) varies, and comparison between different series is difficult, given the differences in preoperative evaluation, surgical strategies, and outcome analysis. To evaluate our results, we reviewed a series of children who underwent surgical treatment in a period of 14 years.

METHODS

We made a retrospective review of 104 cases in which microsurgical repair of the brachial plexus was performed. Strength was graded using the Active Movement Scale. Whenever possible, upper palsies underwent surgery 4 to 6 months after birth and total lesions around 3 months. The lesions were repaired, according to the type of injury: neurolysis, nerve grafting, nerve transfer, or a combination of techniques. The children were followed for at least 24 months.

RESULTS

The majority of cases were complete lesions (56/53.8%). Erb's palsy was present in 10 cases (9.6%), and 39 infants (37.5%) presented an extended Erb's palsy. The surgical techniques applied were neurolysis (10.5%), nerve grafts (25.9%), nerve transfers (34.6%), and a combination of grafts and transfers (30.7%). The final outcome was considered poor in 41.3% of the cases, good in 34.3%, and excellent in 24%. A functional result (good plus excellent) was achieved in 58.3% of the cases.

CONCLUSIONS

There is no consensus regarding strategies for treatment of NBPP. Our surgical outcomes indicated a good general result comparing with the literature. However, our results were lower than the best results reported. Maybe the explanation is our much higher number of total palsy cases (53.8% vs. 25% in the literature).

Arthroscopic versus open release of internal rotation contracture in the obstetrical brachial plexus paralysis (OBPP) sequela

BACKGROUND

Latissimus dorsi (LD) and teres major (TM) tendon transfers are effective surgical procedures to improve shoulder abduction and external rotation for children with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy (OBPP). Open pectoralis major (PM) tendon Z-plasty and arthroscopic subscapularis (SS) release are 2 options for the release of internal rotation contractures to enhance muscle transfers. This study compared the functional results of LD and TM tendon transfers with open PM tendon Z-plasty or arthroscopic SS release.

METHODS

The study included 24 patients who underwent LD and TM tendon transfers for OBPP (9 arthroscopic SS release, 15 open PM tendon Z-plasty) with a mean follow-up of 41.33 months (range, 36-60 months) and 47.2 months (range, 36-60 months), respectively. Functional evaluation was made according to range of motion and Mallet scoring system.

RESULTS

Shoulder abduction-external rotation degrees and scores in all sections of the Mallet scoring system significantly increased in both groups (P < .001). Postoperatively, the arthroscopic SS release group had significantly better abduction degrees (P = .003), total Mallet scores (P < .001), and superior abduction (P = .043), active external rotation (P = .043), hand-to-head (P = .043), and hand-to-mouth (P < .001) scores for the Mallet scoring system.

DISCUSSION

Transfer of LD together with TM tendons combined with one of the internal rotation contracture release procedures yielded good clinical and functional results in patients younger than age 7, regardless of the type of release method. However, arthroscopic SS release, although requiring an experienced surgeon, revealed better clinical and functional outcomes and is considered to be a less invasive and superior method.

Hand-Use-at-Home Questionnaire: validity and reliability in children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy or unilateral cerebral palsy

OBJECTIVE

To investigate construct validity and test-retest reliability of the parent-rated Hand-Use-at-Home questionnaire (HUH) in children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy or unilateral cerebral palsy.

DESIGN AND SUBJECTS

For this cross-sectional study, children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy or unilateral cerebral palsy, aged 3-10 years, were eligible.

MAIN MEASURES

The HUH, Pediatric Outcome Data Collection Instrument Upper Extremity Scale (neonatal brachial plexus palsy only), and Children's Hand-Use Experience Questionnaire (unilateral cerebral palsy only) were completed. The HUH was completed twice in subgroups of both diagnoses. Lesion-extent (indication of involved nerve rootlets in neonatal brachial plexus palsy as confirmed during clinical observation and/or nerve surgery) and Manual Ability Classification System levels (unilateral cerebral palsy) were obtained from the medical records. Spearman correlation coefficients between the HUH and all clinical variables, agreement, standard error of measurement, smallest detectable change and intra-class correlation were calculated.

RESULTS

A total of 260 patients participated (neonatal brachial plexus palsy: 181), of which 56 completed the second HUH (neonatal brachial plexus palsy: 16). Median age was 6.9 years for children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy, 116 had C5-C6 lesions. Median age for children with unilateral cerebral palsy was 6.4 years, 33 had Manual Ability Classification System Level II. The HUH correlated moderately with lesion-extent ( rs =-0.5), Pediatric Outcome Data Collection Instrument Upper Extremity Scale ( rs = 0.6) and Children's Hand-Use Experience Questionnaire ( rs = 0.5) but weakly with Manual Ability Classification System levels ( rs = -0.4). Test-retest reliability was excellent (intra-class correlation2,1 = 0.89, standard error of measurement = 0.599 and smallest detectable change = 1.66 logits) and agreement was good (mean difference HUH1 - HUH2 = 0.06 logits).

CONCLUSION

The HUH showed good construct validity and test-retest reliability in children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy or unilateral cerebral palsy.

Sensibility of the Hand in Children With Conservatively or Surgically Treated Upper Neonatal Brachial Plexus Lesion

BACKGROUND

The aim of this study was to assess the sensibility of the hand in children with a neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) involving the C5 and C6, and to correlate results with dexterity.

METHODS

Fifty children with NBPP (30 after nerve surgery, mean age 9.8 years) and 25 healthy controls (mean age 9.6 years) were investigated. Sensibility was assessed with two-point discrimination and Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments. Dexterity was evaluated with a single item from the Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2. We compared the affected side with the nondominant hand of the control group.

RESULTS

The sensibility in the first and second fingers was significantly diminished in the NBPP for both two-point discrimination (P = 0.005 and P = 0.014, respectively) and monofilament test (P < 0.001). Dexterity was significantly lower in the NBPP group than in control group, corrected for age (P = 0.023). There was a significant difference toward decreasing hand function with decreasing sensibility according to the Semmes-Weinstein test for the thumb (Jonckheere-Terpstra nonparametric trend test, P = 0.036).

CONCLUSIONS

The sensibility of the thumb and index finger in children with an upper plexus lesion (either surgically or conservatively treated) is diminished. The decreased sensibility has a negative impact on hand function. Appreciation of diminished hand function in patients with NBPP involving C5 and C6 is important to optimize treatment.

Timing of rehabilitation in children with obstetric upper trunk brachial plexus palsy

OBJECTIVES

The initiation timing of rehabilitation in children with obstetric brachial plexus palsy is controversial. The aim of the present study is to evaluate the effectiveness of rehabilitation timing to the functional outcomes of patients with obstetric upper trunk brachial plexus palsy.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Twenty-nine patients, who did not previously received any rehabilitation programme but attended our outpatient clinic, were included for the study. The electrophysiological findings, obstetric characteristics, and demographic features of the patients were recorded. The range of motion (ROM) of shoulders, elbows, and wrists and the strength of the muscles associated with these joints were evaluated. Modified Mallet Scale (MMS) was used for functional evaluation. A 4-week rehabilitation programme was performed twice at 2-month intervals. Patients were divided into three groups according to their ages as follows: 1-3 years old (group 1), 3-5 years old (group 2), and 5-7 years old (group 3). The ROMs, muscle strengths, and MMS scores of the patients were all evaluated.

RESULTS

Two out of 29 patients were female (6.9%) and 27 were male (93.1%). All 29 patients had right upper extremity palsy (100%). The MMS scores, ROMs, and muscle strength of the upper extremities had improved in all the groups following the standardized rehabilitation programme.

CONCLUSIONS

A rehabilitation programme is the best choice of treatment before surgical procedures in patients with mild to moderate obstetric upper trunk brachial plexus palsy regardless of age and the initiation time.

Functional outcomes of infants with Narakas grade 1 birth-related brachial plexus palsy undergoing neurotization compared with infants who did not require surgery

PURPOSE

This study aimed to investigate the functional outcomes of infants who underwent neurotization for shoulder abduction and elbow flexion in Narakas grade 1 birth-related brachial plexus palsy (BRBPP) and compare this cohort to children who progressed past the point of needing intervention.

METHODS

A cohort study was conducted at a single center between 1999 and 2010. Two-hundred and eight infants were identified with BRBPP that presented for neurosurgical care as infants. Of those, 38 (18 %) received neurosurgical intervention with approximate 2-year follow-up. Only infants undergoing cranial nerve XI to suprascapular nerve neurotization for shoulder abduction (SA) weakness and medial pectoral nerve to musculocutaneous nerve neurotization for elbow flexion (EF) weakness were included. In addition, 30 infants who improved past the need for surgical intervention and had been followed for close to 24 months were identified for comparison. Descriptive statistics and exploratory analysis were performed using SAS 9.2 and JMP 9.0.2.

RESULTS

Shoulder abduction For SA, there were no differences in age at presentation between the operative (6-9 months) and non-operative (5-9 months) groups (p = 0.99). Infants in the operative cohort had significantly worse initial function (p = 0.008). At 2-year follow-up, the two groups had become similar (p = 1.0). Elbow flexion For EF, there were no differences in age at presentation between the operative (6-8 months) and non-operative (5-8.5 months) groups (p = 0.98). Infants in the operative cohort had significantly worse initial function (p = 0.002). At 2-year follow-up, those two groups had become similar (p = 0.26).

CONCLUSIONS

Infants undergoing neurotization for Narakas grade 1 brachial plexus injury had similar long-term function to those who had improved and never required surgery. The preoperative exam findings were significantly different between the intervened and non-intervened groups, while the postoperative exam findings were not.

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy: reviewing the literature comparing the results of primary versus secondary surgery

Obstetric brachial plexus injuries (OBPP) are a relatively common stretch injury of the brachial plexus that occurs during delivery. Roughly 30 % of patients will not recover completely and will need a surgical repair. Two main treatment strategies have been used: primary surgery, consisting in exploring and reconstructing the affected portions of the brachial plexus within the first few months of the patient's life, and secondary procedures that include tendon or muscle transfers, osteotomies, and other orthopedic techniques. Secondary procedures can be done as the only surgical treatment of OBPP or after primary surgery, in order to minimize any residual deficits. Two things are crucial to achieving a good outcome: (1) the appropriate selection of patients, to separate those who will spontaneously recover from those who will recover only partially or not at all; and (2) a good surgical technique. The objective of the present review is to assess the published literature concerning certain controversial issues in OBPP, especially in terms of the true current state of primary and secondary procedures, their results, and the respective roles each plays in modern-day treatment of this complex pathology. Considerable published evidence compiled over decades of surgical experience favors primary nerve surgery as the initial therapeutic step in patients who do not recover spontaneously, followed by secondary surgeries for further functional improvement. As described in this review, the results of such treatment can greatly ameliorate function in affected limbs. For best results, multi-disciplinary teams should treat these patients.

Hand Sensorimotor Function in Older Children With Neonatal Brachial Plexus Palsy

BACKGROUND

Routine sensory assessments in neonatal brachial plexus palsy are infrequently performed because it is generally assumed that sensory recovery exceeds motor recovery. However, studies examining sensory function in neonatal brachial plexus palsy have produced equivocal findings. The purpose of this study was to examine hand sensorimotor function in older children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy using standard clinical and research-based measures of tactile sensibility.

METHODS

Seventeen children with neonatal brachial plexus palsy (mean age: 11.6 years) and 19 age-matched controls participated in the study. Functional assessments included grip force, monofilament testing, and hand dexterity (Nine-Hole Peg, Jebsen-Taylor Hand Function). Tactile spatial perception involving the discrimination of pin patterns and movement-enhanced object recognition (stereognosis) were also assessed.

RESULTS

In the neonatal brachial plexus palsy group, significant deficits in the affected hand motor function were observed compared with the unaffected hand. Median monofilament scores were considered normal for both hands. In contrast, tactile spatial perception was impaired in the neonatal brachial plexus palsy group. This impairment was seen as deficits in both pin pattern and object recognition accuracy as well as the amount of time required to identify patterns and objects. Tactile pattern discrimination time significantly correlated with performance on both functional assessment tests (P < 0.01).

DISCUSSION

This study provides evidence that tactile perception deficits may accompany motor deficits in neonatal brachial plexus palsy even when measures of tactile registration (i.e., monofilament testing) are normal. These results may reflect impaired processing of somatosensory feedback associated with reductions in goal-directed upper limb use and illustrate the importance of including a broader range of sensory assessments in neonatal brachial plexus palsy.

Primary Nerve Repair for Obstetrical Brachial Plexus Injury: A Meta-Analysis

BACKGROUND

Nerve repair may be effective in improving function following obstetrical brachial plexus injury. No previous review has directly compared nerve repair to nonoperative management for similar patients, and no previous analysis has been adequately powered to determine whether nerve repair reduces impairment.

METHODS

Electronic databases were searched (MEDLINE, Embase, CINAHL, and Cochrane Central). Eligible studies were randomized controlled trials, observational studies, and case series (n > 9); included patients younger than 2 years undergoing nerve repair or nonoperative management of obstetrical brachial plexus injury; and reported functional impairment. Two reviewers independently screened articles using objective a priori criteria. Bias was assessed for each study. Overall quality of evidence was evaluated for each outcome.

RESULTS

Among nine cohort studies including 222 patients, nerve repair significantly reduced functional impairment compared with nonoperative management (relative risk, 0.58; 95 percent CI, 0.43 to 0.79; p < 0.001; I = 0 percent; absolute risk reduction, 19 percent; number needed to treat, six). Findings are consistent with comparison of similar patients from case series. With operative management, no deaths were reported; major adverse events were reported in 1.5 percent, and minor adverse events were reported in 5.0 percent of cases. Among demographic (all severities) samples managed nonoperatively, residual impairment remains in 27 percent (19 to 36 percent).

CONCLUSIONS

Nerve repair reduces functional impairment in obstetrical brachial plexus injury. Nonoperative management in patients with a deficit at 3 months of age leads to a high proportion of functional impairment. Mortality is not a common risk of modern pediatric microsurgical nerve repair. Residual impairment with nonoperative management is underestimated in the reported literature.

CLINICAL QUESTION/LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

Therapeutic, IV.

International Federation of Societies for Surgery of the Hand Committee report: the role of nerve transfers in the treatment of neonatal brachial plexus palsy

Nerve transfers have gained popularity in the treatment of adult brachial plexus palsy; however, their role in the treatment of neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) remains unclear. Brachial plexus palsies in infants differ greatly from those in adults in the patterns of injury, potential for recovery, and influences of growth and development. This International Federation of Societies for Surgery of the Hand committee report on NBPP is based upon review of the current literature. We found no direct comparisons of nerve grafting to nerve transfer for primary reconstruction of NBPP. Although the results contained in individual reports that use each strategy for treatment of Erb palsy are similar, comparison of nerve transfer to nerve grafting is limited by inconsistencies in outcomes reported, by multiple confounding factors, and by small numbers of patients. Although the role of nerve transfers for primary reconstruction remains to be defined, nerve transfers have been found to be effective and useful in specific clinical circumstances including late presentation, isolated deficits, failed primary reconstruction, and multiple nerve root avulsions. In the case of NBPP more severe than Erb palsy, nerve transfers alone are inadequate to address all of the deficits and should only be considered as adjuncts if maximal re-innervation is to be achieved. Surgeons who commit to care of infants with NBPP need to avoid an over-reliance on nerve transfers and should also have the capability and inclination for brachial plexus exploration and nerve graft reconstruction.

Outcome in adolescence of brachial plexus birth palsy. 69 individuals re-examined after 10–20 years

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The frequency and severity of a permanent lesion after brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) and its impact on activities of daily living are not well documented. We therefore investigated the outcome of BPBP in adolescents, regarding arm function and consequences for activity and participation.

PARTICIPANTS AND METHODS

Of 30,574 babies born at St. Olavs University Hospital in 1991-2000, 91 had BPBP (prevalence 3 per 1,000), and 69 of these individuals were examined at a median age of 14 (10-20) years. The examination included the modified Mallet classification, range of motion, shoulder rotation and grip strength, Assisting Hand Assessment, and Canadian Occupational Performance Measure. Of the 22 subjects who were not examined, 3 could not be traced and 19 reported having no problems in the affected arm.

RESULTS

At follow-up, 17 adolescents had a permanent lesion (i.e. individual Mallet subscore below 4) with a median Mallet total score of 15 (9-19), while 52 had good or normal shoulder function (median Mallet total score 25 (23-25)). All participants with a permanent lesion had reduced active shoulder rotation (≤15°), 16 had elbow extension deficit, and 10 had subnormal grip strength. External rotation was considerably weaker in the affected shoulder. In addition, they had ineffective use of the affected arm in bimanual activities. Even so, all except 1 were independent in activities of daily living, although 15 experienced minor difficulties.

INTERPRETATION

Every fourth to fifth child with BPBP had a permanent lesion as an adolescent. External rotation was the most impaired movement. Despite ineffective use of the affected arm in bimanual activities, all of the participants except one were independent in activities of daily living.

Evaluation and management of brachial plexus birth palsy

Brachial plexus birth palsy can result in permanent lifelong deficits and unfortunately continues to be relatively common despite advancements in obstetric care. The diagnosis can be made shortly after birth by physical examination, noting a lack of movement in the affected upper extremity. Treatment begins with passive range-of-motion exercises to maintain flexibility and tactile stimulation to provide sensory reeducation. Primary surgery consists of microsurgical nerve surgery, whereas secondary surgery consists of alternative microsurgical procedures, tendon transfers, or osteotomies, all of which improve outcomes in the short term. However, the long-term outcomes of current treatment recommendations remain unknown.

Utility of delayed surgical repair of neonatal brachial plexus palsy

OBJECT

Neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) represents a significant health problem with potentially devastating consequences. The most common form of NBPP involves the upper trunk roots. Currently, primary surgical repair is performed if clinical improvement is lacking. There has been increasing interest in "early" surgical repair of NBPPs, occurring within 3-6 months of life. However, early treatment recommendations ignore spontaneous recovery in cases of Erb's palsy. This study was undertaken to evaluate the optimal timing of surgical repair in this group with respect to quality of life.

METHODS

The authors formulated a decision analytical model to compare 4 treatment strategies (no repair or repair at 3, 6, or 12 months of life) for infants with persistent NBPPs. The model derives data from a critical review of published studies and projects health-related quality of life and quality-adjusted life years over a lifetime.

RESULTS

When evaluating the quality of life of infants with NBPP, improved outcomes are seen with delayed surgical repair at 12 months, compared with no repair or repair at early and intermediate time points, at 3 and 6 months, respectively. ANOVA showed that the differences among the 4 groups are highly significant (F = 8369; p < 0.0001). Pairwise post hoc comparisons revealed that there are highly significant differences between each pair of strategies (p < 0.0001). Meta-regression showed no evidence of improved outcomes with more recent treatment dates, compared with older ones, for either nonsurgical or for surgical treatment (p = 0.767 and p = 0.865, respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

These data support a delayed approach of primary surgical reconstruction to optimize quality of life. Early surgery for NBPPs may be an overly aggressive strategy for infants who would otherwise demonstrate spontaneous recovery of function by 12 months. A randomized, controlled trial would be necessary to fully elucidate the natural history of NBPP and determine the optimal time point for surgical intervention.

Effects of Botulinum Toxin on Reducing the Co-contraction of Antagonists in Birth Brachial Plexus Palsy

Birth brachial plexus palsy (BBPP) is usually caused by plexus traction during difficult delivery. Although the possibility of complete recovery is relatively high, 5% to 25% of BBPP cases result in prolonged and persistent disability. In particular, muscle imbalance and co-contraction around the shoulder and elbow cause abnormal motor performance, osseous deformities, and joint contracture. Physical and occupational therapies have most commonly been used, but these conventional therapeutic strategies have often been inadequate, in managing the residual muscle imbalance and muscle co-contraction. Therefore, we attempted to improve the functional movements, by using botulinum toxin type A, to reduce the abnormal co-contraction of the antagonist muscles.

The evidence for nerve repair in obstetric brachial plexus palsy revisited

Strong scientific validation for nerve reconstructive surgery in infants with Obstetric Brachial Plexus Palsy is lacking, as no randomized trial comparing surgical reconstruction versus conservative treatment has been performed. A systematic review of the literature was performed to identify studies that compare nerve reconstruction to conservative treatment, including neurolysis. Nine papers were identified that directly compared the two treatment modalities. Eight of these were classified as level 4 evidence and one as level 5 evidence. All nine papers were evaluated in detail to describe strong and weak points in the methodology, and the outcomes from all studies were presented. Pooling of data was not possible due to differences in patient selection for surgery and outcome measures. The general consensus is that nerve reconstruction is indicated when the result of nerve surgery is assumedly better than the expected natural recovery, when spontaneous recovery is absent or severely delayed. The papers differed in methodology on how the cut-off point to select infants for nerve reconstructive surgical therapy should be determined. The justification for nerve reconstruction is further discussed.

Extending the indications for primary nerve surgery in obstetrical brachial plexus palsy

Purpose. This study identifies a small subset of patients with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy who, while they do not meet common surgical indications, may still benefit from primary nerve surgery. Methods. Between April 2004 and April 2009, 17 patients were offered primary nerve surgery despite not meeting the standard surgical indications of the authors. The authors performed a retrospective analysis of these 17 patients using prospectively collected data. Results. This group of 17 patients were identified as having poor shoulder function at about 9 months of age despite passing the Cookie Test. Fourteen patients underwent surgical intervention and three families declined surgery. All patients in the operative group regained some active external rotation after surgery. Five patients in this group have required further interventions. Two of the three patients for whom surgery was declined have had no subsequent spontaneous improvement in active external rotation. Discussion. The commonly used indications for primary nerve surgery in obstetrical brachial plexus palsy may not adequately identify all patients who may benefit from surgical intervention. Patients who pass the Cookie Test but have poor spontaneous recovery of active shoulder movements, particularly external rotation, may still benefit from primary nerve surgery.

Psychometric properties of outcome measures for children and adolescents with brachial plexus birth palsy: a systematic review

AIM

The aim of this review was to evaluate the psychometric properties of outcome measures used to quantify upper limb function in children and adolescents with brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP).

METHOD

Eleven electronic databases were searched to identify studies on the effects of conservative management to improve upper limb function in young people with BPBP. Outcome measures used in these studies were extracted and used in a subsequent search to identify studies that evaluated the psychometric properties of these measures. The methodological quality of these studies was rated using a standardized critical appraisal tool.

RESULTS

Thirty-three outcome measures and 12 psychometric studies were identified. Nine outcome measures had some psychometric evidence, which was variable in quality. The outcome measures which seem to have the most robust psychometric properties include the Active Movement Scale, Assisting Hand Assessment, Pediatric Evaluation of Disability Index, and the Pediatric Outcomes Data Collection Instrument.

INTERPRETATION

Further research is required to determine the psychometric properties of outcome measures used for children and adolescents with BPBP. Caution is required when interpreting the results of commonly used outcome measures in this population owing to their relatively unknown psychometric properties.

The brachial plexus outcome measure: development, internal consistency, and construct validity

PURPOSE

The purpose of this article was to report the development of a new assessment tool, the Brachial Plexus Outcome Measure (BPOM) and the evaluation of its internal consistency and construct validity.

METHODS

A retrospective case series of children aged 4-19 years with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy (OBPP) was conducted. Intraclass coefficients were calculated for the BPOM Activity Scale items. Correlation between the Active Movement Scale (AMS) and BPOM Activity Scale scores were conducted to determine the convergent validity.

RESULTS

The BPOM Activity Scale items (N=306) had good internal consistency (Cronbach's α=0.87). A strong correlation between the BPOM Activity Scale and AMS (n=284) was found (r=0.71, p=0.001, α=0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The BPOM Activity Scale demonstrates good internal consistency and construct validity as a discriminative functional outcome measure in children with OBPP.

LEVEL OF EVIDENCE

IV.

A cross-sectional study of hand sensation in adults with conservatively treated obstetric brachial plexus lesion

AIM

Sensory function is assumed to recover almost completely in obstetric brachial plexus lesion (OBPL), and is reported to recover much better than motor function. However, there is no obvious physiological reason why this should be so. Any persistent problems with sensory innervation might contribute to disability, therefore we aimed to assess sensory dysfunction in adults resulting from OBPL.

METHOD

Adults with conservatively treated OBPL (n=17; 12 females, five males; median age 38y; lesion levels: C5-C6, n=7; C5-C7, n=7; C5-C8, n=2; C5-Th1, n=1) and 19 healthy comparison persons (10 females, nine males; median age 23y) were investigated. Sensory function was measured using Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments, two-point discrimination, object recognition, and a locognosia test.

RESULTS

Scores of the Semmes-Weinstein monofilaments and two-point discrimination, but not object recognition or locognosia, were significantly worse in those with OBPL than in those without OBPL.

INTERPRETATION

There may be systematic abnormalities in sensory function in adults with conservatively treated OBPL. The existence of these impairments and their contribution to functional impairment needs to be acknowledged.

Assessment of the usefulness of X-ray myelography and magnetic resonance myelography, performed with an open low-field device, in diagnosing perinatal preganglionic injuries of the brachial plexus

INTRODUCTION

The goal is to assess the usefulness of diagnostic imaging in diagnosing perinatal preganglionic injuries of the brachial plexus.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The clinical material included 40 children of both genders, aged 2 to 35 months. The authors analysed the results of diagnostic imaging examinations (myelography in 20 cases and magnetic resonance [MR] myelography in 20 cases), intraoperative view and clinical course.

RESULTS

In 13 out of 40 (32.5%) examined children, no evidence of avulsion of the roots of the spinal nerves was found either by diagnostic imaging or during the surgery. In 3 cases (7.5%) with avulsed roots of the spinal nerves, the diagnostic imaging and intraoperative appearance were in agreement. Total agreement of the diagnostic imaging and intraoperative view was found in 40% of cases. In 9 patients (22.5%) suspected avulsion of roots of the spinal nerves was not confirmed during the surgery. However, the further clinical course of the disease in these cases indicated high probability of avulsion of roots without their pull-out from the intervertebral foramens. In the remaining cases, the findings were as follows: false positive results - 7 (17.5%), false negative results - 1 (2.5%), results underestimating injury - 3 (7.5%), results overestimating injury - 2 (5%).

CONCLUSIONS

It was determined that the usefulness of pre-operative diagnostic imaging is limited. Due to the risk of occurrence of false positive and false negative results, final decisions concerning selection of the surgical technique must be based on the analysis of the intraoperative view and preoperative clinical symptoms.

A subscapularis-preserving arthroscopic release of capsule in the treatment of internal rotation contracture of shoulder in Erb's palsy (SPARC procedure)

The purpose of this study was to evaluate a minimally invasive subscapularis-preserving arthroscopic release of capsule in the treatment of internal rotation contracture of the shoulder due to Erb's palsy. We performed our procedure (subscapularis-preserving arthroscopic release of capsule) in 10 paediatric shoulders with an average age of 20.2 months and followed them for an average period of 41.5 months. All the patients were assessed clinically and radiologically preoperatively and postoperatively at regular intervals. The Mallet scoring system was used for analysing the results. The average gain in passive external rotation was 50°. The active internal rotation was preserved in all the cases. With the mid-term follow-up, there was no loss of the gained external rotation or the recurrence of internal rotation contracture of the shoulder. Our hypothesis has achieved its goal in preserving subscapularis, active internal rotation and treatment of internal rotation contracture of the shoulder. The success of this procedure lies in the early identification of starting of internal rotation contracture and early surgical intervention to prevent progressive permanent glenohumeral osseocartilaginous deformity.

Aspects of activities and participation of 7-8 year-old children with an obstetric brachial plexus injury

BACKGROUND

Children with an obstetric brachial plexus injury (OBPI) can experience problems in the performance of meaningful activities such as writing, bimanual activities, and participation in sports and leisure activities.

AIMS

To quantify the everyday functioning and participation of 7-8 year-old children with an OBPI, with special emphasis on writing, and to investigate associated characteristics.

METHODS

Parents of children with an OBPI were sent a self-report questionnaire regarding the school performance, writing abilities, bimanual hand use, and participation in sports and leisure activities of their child, assessed with the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (VABS sub-scale writing), the ABILHAND-kids, and the Children's Assessment of Participation and Enjoyment (CAPE). Furthermore, questions were asked about socio-demographic variables, medical history, pain, and the use of assistive devices.

RESULTS

Fifty three questionnaires were filled in (response 61%). According to the parents, 66% of their children were almost completely recovered, and 58% had a near normal arm function. Most of the children preferred to use their non-involved hand. More than 45% of the children complained about pain, and 39.6% had difficulties with writing, which resulted in a mean developmental delay of 8 months on the VABS sub-scale. Children with writing problems significantly more often had neurosurgery, were living with a single parent, more often received assistance at school, and had a significantly lower ABILHAND-kids score, compared to children with no writing problems.

CONCLUSIONS

Large percentages of 7-8 year-old children with an OBPI experience difficulties with writing and have musculoskeletal pain. Restrictions in participation were less pronounced.

Preganglionic injuries in perinatal brachial plexus palsies - results of surgical treatment

BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE

The authors report their experience in surgical treatment of preganglionic injuries in perinatal brachial plexus palsies.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Clinical material consisted of 16 children, of both sexes, aged from 2.5 to 33 months (mean 6.2 months), treated surgically between 1994 and 2006. The clinical view of the injury and location of preganglionic lesions was analysed and the description of the performed microsurgical techniques is provided. Control clinical examinations included a group of 14 children. The shortest postoperative observation period was 3 years. The currently accepted scales of evaluation of function of particular joints of the upper limb were used.

RESULTS

The following outcome was noted after surgical treatment of perinatal brachial plexus palsies with signs of pre- and postganglionic injuries: good shoulder function in 6 cases, and average in 2 others; good elbow function in 4 cases, and average in 7 patients; functional position of the forearm in 9 cases, and good range of pronation and supination in 1 patient; useful function of wrist (flexion/extension) in 4 cases; good motor hand function in 3 cases, and fair in 6 patients.

CONCLUSIONS

In preganglionic perinatal brachial plexus injuries located in the upper-middle part, spinal nerve C7 roots avulsion is the most frequently observed, and in the lower part of the brachial plexus, spinal nerve C8 roots avulsion is the most frequently observed. In preganglionic injuries of the brachial plexus, the number of avulsed spinal nerves has an influence on technical possibilities of performing reconstruction procedures, and then the results of the surgical treatment.

Does primary brachial plexus surgery alter palliative tendon transfer surgery outcomes in children with obstetric paralysis?

Background

The surgical management of obstetrical brachial plexus palsy can generally be divided into two groups; early reconstructions in which the plexus or affected nerves are addressed and late or palliative reconstructions in which the residual deformities are addressed. Tendon transfers are the mainstay of palliative surgery. Occasionally, surgeons are required to utilise already denervated and subsequently reinnervated muscles as motors. This study aimed to compare the outcomes of tendon transfers for residual shoulder dysfunction in patients who had undergone early nerve surgery to the outcomes in patients who had not.

Methods

A total of 91 patients with obstetric paralysis-related shoulder abduction and external rotation deficits who underwent a modified Hoffer transfer of the latissimus dorsi/teres major to the greater tubercle of the humerus tendon between 2002 and 2009 were retrospectively analysed. The patients who had undergone neural surgery during infancy were compared to those who had not in terms of their preoperative and postoperative shoulder abduction and external rotation active ranges of motion.

Results

In the early surgery groups, only the postoperative external rotation angles showed statistically significant differences (25 degrees and 75 degrees for total and upper type palsies, respectively). Within the palliative surgery-only groups, there were no significant differences between the preoperative and postoperative abduction and external rotation angles. The significant differences between the early surgery groups and the palliative surgery groups with total palsy during the preoperative period diminished postoperatively (p < 0.05 and p > 0.05, respectively) for abduction but not for external rotation. Within the upper type palsy groups, there were no significant differences between the preoperative and postoperative abduction and external rotation angles.

Conclusions

In this study, it was found that in patients with total paralysis, satisfactory shoulder abduction values can be achieved with tendon transfers regardless of a previous history of neural surgery even if the preoperative values differ.

Range of motion and strength after surgery for brachial plexus birth palsy

BACKGROUND

There is little information about the range of motion (ROM) and strength of the affected upper limbs of patients with permanent brachial plexus birth palsy.

PATIENTS AND METHODS

107 patients who had brachial plexus surgery in Finland between 1971 and 1998 were investigated in this population-based, cross-sectional, 12-year follow-up study. During the follow-up, 59 patients underwent secondary procedures. ROM and isometric strength of the shoulders, elbows, wrists, and thumbs were measured. Ratios for ROM and strength between the affected and unaffected sides were calculated.

RESULTS

61 patients (57%) had no active shoulder external rotation (median 0° (-75-90)). Median active abduction was 90° (1-170). Shoulder external rotation strength of the affected side was diminished (median ratio 28% (0-83)). Active elbow extension deficiency was recorded in 82 patients (median 25° (5-80)). Elbow flexion strength of the affected side was uniformly impaired (median ratio 43% (0-79)). Median active extension of the wrist was 55° (-70-90). The median ratio of grip strength for the affected side vs. the unaffected side was 68% (0-121). Patients with total injury had poorer ROM and strength than those with C5-6 injury. Incongruity of the radiohumeral joint and avulsion were associated with poor strength values.

INTERPRETATION

ROM and strength of affected upper limbs of patients with surgically treated brachial plexus birth palsy were reduced. Patients with avulsion injuries and/or consequent joint deformities fared worst.

Developmental and biomechanical considerations in the provision of wrist orthoses in children with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy

Introduction

Children with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy may have motor deficits in wrist extension that impact optimal hand function. Wrist orthoses are recommended for such impairment to address biomechanical and functional needs. The functional need of the child should be considered within the context of their developmental expectation.

Methods

A review of the literature pertaining to brachial plexus, wrist joint and injuries, orthotics devices and splints in children was conducted. The databases MEDLINE, AMED (Allied and Complementary Medicine) and CINAHL (Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature) were searched from 1950, 1985 and 1981, respectively, to July 2009 using the Medical Subject Headings (MeSH) brachial plexus, wrist joint and injuries, orthotics devices and splints under the limits of children aged 0–18 years.

Results

There is a paucity of literature on the orthotic management for this impairment. Therefore, an evaluation of the literature on development and the biomechanics of the wrist joint is necessary to develop clinical guidelines for the provision of wrist orthoses in children with obstetrical brachial plexus palsy. An algorithm for providing wrist orthoses in this population is proposed.

Discussion

A balance between biomechanical risks and functional needs at each developmental stage is needed to optimize hand function in the prescription of wrist orthoses.

Obstetrical brachial plexus palsy

SUMMARY

In this article, the authors review their approach to evaluation, operative management, and reconstructive technique. Brachial plexus injuries in the newborn are usually managed nonoperatively. The timing and indications for primary surgery vary significantly between institutions. The motor examination is used to determine which infants would benefit from operative management. Patients are selected based on established criteria, such as the Toronto Test Score, applied at age 3 months. However, some cases are initially less clear, and we may recommend delaying operative management until age 6 months or as late as age 9 months if the child fails the cookie test. Neuroma excision, sural nerve grafting, and nerve transfers are performed when indicated by clinical motor examination. The use of selective motor nerve transfers, either in combination with nerve grafting or alone, has allowed nerve coaptations to be performed closer to the neuromuscular junction, which may further improve regeneration. Children undergoing primary surgery experience low rates of perioperative morbidity, and they experience gains in motor function until 3 or 4 years postoperatively, at which point recovery stabilizes.

Obstetric brachial plexus palsy: a prospective, population-based study of incidence, recovery, and residual impairment at 18 months of age

AIM

The aim of this investigation was to study the incidence of obstetric brachial plexus palsy (OBPP), to prospectively follow the recovery process, to assess the functional outcome at 18 months of age, and to find early prognostic indicators.

METHOD

Of the 38 749 children born between 1999 and 2001 in western Sweden, 114 (70 males, 44 females) had an OBPP. Ninety-eight children were examined on six occasions at up to 18 months of age. Muscle strength, range of motion, hand preference, and functional abilities were noted, and the severity of the OBPP was classified.

RESULTS

The incidence of OBPP was 2.9 per 1000 live births, and the incidence of persisting OBPP was 0.46 per 1000. At 3 months of age, the predictive value of regained elbow flexion for complete recovery was 100%, 99% of shoulder external rotation, and 96% of forearm supination. Most of the 18 children with persisting OBPP could perform functional activities but asymmetries were noted. Five children had a mild, 11 had a moderate, and two had a severe impairment. Three had undergone nerve surgery, one with a mild and two with a severe persisting impairment.

INTERPRETATION

Most children with an OBPP recover completely. Muscle strength at 3 months of age can be used to predict outcome.

Current concepts in the management of brachial plexus birth palsy

Brachial plexus birth palsy, although rare, may result in substantial and chronic impairment. Physiotherapy, microsurgical nerve reconstruction, secondary joint corrections, and muscle transpositions are employed to help the child maximize function in the affected upper extremity. Many present controversies regarding natural history, microsurgical treatment, and secondary shoulder reconstructive surgery remain unresolved in infants with brachial plexus birth palsies. Recent literature has enhanced our understanding of the pathoanatomy and natural history of the injury as well as the surgical indications, expected outcomes, and complications; this literature has led to improved care of these patients. Based on the present evidence, recommendations for both microsurgery and shoulder reconstruction with tendon transfer and arthroscopic and open reductions are presented.

Prognosis following neonatal brachial plexus palsy: an evidence-based review

PURPOSE

The spontaneous recovery rate of neonatal brachial plexus palsy (NBPP) is often cited as 75-95%. However, recent reports have found the recovery rate to be much lower. The purpose of this study was to perform an evidence-based review aimed at summarizing the available English language information regarding prognosis following NBPP based on the Narakas classification.

METHODS

A Medline database search was performed to identify articles that focused on the natural history, outcome, prognosis, or conservative treatment of neonatal brachial plexus birth injury from 1966 to 2006. Twenty-four articles were identified. The articles were graded according to the Oxford Evidence Based Grading Scale and data regarding sample size, follow up, study purpose, Narakas grouping, Mallet scale, and recovery of function at 3 and 6 months were extracted. Of the 24 articles, 11 were included for review. Data analysis included odds ratios and percent recovery.

RESULTS

Of the 11 studies, only one was given a grade of a Level I study, three were given a grade of Level II, and seven were given a grade of Level IV. Sixty-four percent of infants classified as Narakas I and II had spontaneous recovery of biceps function at 3 months of age and only 9% of the Narakas III and IV group had recovery. Sixty-five percent of the Narakas I and II group had complete recovery at 6 months of age and only 14% of the Narakas III and IV group had recovery. The odds of biceps recovery at 3 months of age for the Narakas I and II group was 19 times higher compared to the III and IV group. The odds of complete recovery were 11 times higher for the Narakas I and II group compared to the III and IV group.

CONCLUSION

The quality of the literature regarding the prognosis of neonatal brachial plexus injury is poor. Based on the Narakas classification, recovery better for NBPP classified as Narakas I and II.

Permanent brachial plexus birth palsy does not impair the development and function of the spine and lower limbs

Permanent brachial plexus birth palsy (BPBP) impairs the function of the affected upper limb. Avulsion type root injuries may damage the cervical spinal cord. Whether abnormal function of an upper limb affected by BPBP has any observable effects on the development of the locomotion system and overall motor function has not been clarified in depth. A total of 111 patients who had undergone brachial plexus surgery for BPBP in infancy were examined after a mean follow-up time of 13 (5-32) years. Patients' physical activities were recorded by a questionnaire. No significant inequalities in leg length were found and the incidence of structural scoliosis (1.7%) did not differ from that of the reference population. Nearly half of the patients (43%) had asynchronous motion of the upper limbs during gait, which was associated with impaired upper limb function. Data obtained from the completed questionnaires indicated that only few patients were unable to participate in normal activities such as: bicycling, cross-country skiing or swimming. Not surprisingly, 71% of the patients reported problems related to the affected upper limb, such as muscle weakness and/or joint stiffness during the aforementioned activities.

Biceps muscle trauma at birth with pseudotumour formation: a cause of poor elbow flexion and supination in birth lesions of the brachial plexus

We retrospectively studied the possibility that direct trauma to the biceps muscle might be the cause of poor elbow flexion and supination in 18 consecutive children with birth lesions of the brachial plexus who had delayed or impaired biceps recovery despite neurophysiological evidence of reinnervation. All had good shoulder and hand function at three months of age. Eight recovered a strong biceps after six months, but nine required a pectoralis minor to biceps transfer to augment elbow flexion and supination. One had a delayed but good recovery of the biceps after microsurgical reconstruction of the plexus. All had a clinical 'pseudotumour' in the biceps muscle, which was biopsied during pectoralis minor transfer in two patients and showed rupture and degeneration of muscle fibres with a fibro-fatty infiltrate, suggesting previous muscle trauma. Direct muscle trauma is an uncommon but important cause of delayed or impaired biceps recovery after brachial plexus birth injuries. Surgery to reinnervate the biceps muscle will not work if substantial muscle damage is present when a suitable muscle transfer should be considered.

Motor nerve-conduction studies in obstetric brachial plexopathy for a selection of patients with a poor outcome

BACKGROUND

The criteria and timing for nerve surgery in infants with obstetric brachial plexopathy remain controversial. Our aim was to develop a new method for early prognostic assessment to assist this decision process.

METHODS

Fifty-four patients with unilateral obstetric brachial plexopathy who were ten to sixty days old underwent bilateral motor-nerve-conduction studies of the axillary, musculocutaneous, proximal radial, distal radial, median, and ulnar nerves. The ratio between the amplitude of the compound muscle action potential of the affected limb and that of the healthy side was called the axonal viability index. The patients were followed and classified in three groups according to the clinical outcome. We analyzed the receiver operating characteristic curve of each index to define the best cutoff point to detect patients with a poor recovery.

RESULTS

The best cutoff points on the axonal viability index for each nerve (and its sensitivity and specificity) were <10% (88% and 89%, respectively) for the axillary nerve, 0% (88% and 73%) for the musculocutaneous nerve, <20% (82% and 97%) for the proximal radial nerve, <50% (82% and 97%) for the distal radial nerve, and <50% (59% and 97%) for the ulnar nerve. The indices from the proximal radial, distal radial, and ulnar nerves had better specificities compared with the most frequently used clinical criterion: absence of biceps function at three months of age.

CONCLUSIONS

The axonal viability index yields an earlier and more specific prognostic estimation of obstetric brachial plexopathy than does the clinical criterion of biceps function, and we believe it may be useful in determining surgical indications in these patients.

Complete obstetric brachial plexus palsy: surgical improvement to recover a functional hand

OBJECTIVE

Complete obstetrical brachial plexus palsy remains a difficult situation for the child and his/her family. The quality of spontaneous reinnervation is rarely good and always leads to a non-sensitive and non-functional hand, even if abduction of the shoulder and elbow flexion do spontaneously recover. The aim of this study was to assess the results from nerve reconstruction in cases of complete palsy and to demonstrate the effect of a change in surgical technique on the outcome of hand function.

METHODS

Thirty pediatric patients with complete obstetric brachial plexus palsy were operated on in our department between 1987 and 2003. Twenty-five of these patients were clinically reviewed and evaluated by a physiotherapist and a surgeon (not the surgeon who performed the surgery). Functional assessment was based on the Gilbert shoulder score, the Gilbert-Raimondi score for elbow function and the Raimondi hand score. All children underwent a nerve reconstruction as graft and/or intra- or extra-plexual neurotization. Our neural surgical strategy changed between 1995 and 1996 to one that addresses the function of the hand and the wrist. A secondary surgical intervention was required in 18 cases. The most frequent procedures were a radial rotation osteotomy and a tendon transfer restoring wrist extension.

RESULTS

Mean follow-up was 7 years and 10 months. Among children operated on with the first surgical strategy-the pre-1995-1996 period-hand function was good in three cases, satisfactory in four cases and unsatisfactory in one case. Among children for whom the second surgical strategy was used-1995-1996 and later-hand function was good or very good in eight cases, satisfactory in four cases and unsatisfactory in two cases. When the 25 patients were assessed for shoulder function, the functional result was good or very good in 12 cases, satisfactory in seven cases and unsatisfactory in six cases. In terms of elbow function, the results were good or very good in 14 cases, satisfactory in eight cases and unsatisfactory in three cases. All hands recovered sensation to a certain degree.

CONCLUSION

The surgical results are encouraging in terms of shoulder and elbow function, but not as good for hand function. With the change in neural surgical strategy in 1995-1996, when more focus was placed on the hand (second surgical strategy), the results on hand function improved relative to those obtained with the first surgical strategy. It must also be noted that hand recovery requires more time, which may partially explain why functional results are not as good for the hand as for the shoulder and elbow. These results demonstrate that early surgical exploration is useful in complete obstetrical brachial plexus palsies and that there is a need for neural reconstruction of the lower trunk.

Navigating the gray zone: a guideline for surgical decision making in obstetrical brachial plexus injuries

OBJECT

In the literature, the best recommendations are imprecise as to the timing and selection of infants with obstetrical brachial plexus injury (OBPI) for surgical intervention. There is a gray zone (GZ) in which the decision as to the benefits and risks of surgery versus no surgery is not clear. The authors propose to describe this category, and they have developed a guideline to assist surgical decision-making within this GZ.

METHODS

The authors first performed a critical review of the medical literature to determine the existence of a GZ in other clinical publications. In those reports, 47-89% of infants with OBPI fell within such a GZ. Complete recovery in those reported patients ranged from 9 to 59%. Using a prospective inception cohort design, all infants referred to the OBPI Clinic at McMaster Children's Hospital were systematically evaluated up to 3 years of age. The Active Movement Scale scores were compared for surgical and nonsurgical groups of infants in the GZ to identify any important trends that would guide surgical decision-making.

RESULTS

In the authors' population of infants with OBPI, 81% fell within the GZ, of whom 44% achieved complete recovery. Mean scores differed significantly between surgery and no surgery groups in terms of total Active Movement Scale score and shoulder abduction and flexion at 6 months. Elbow flexion and external rotation differed at 3 months.

CONCLUSIONS

There is compelling evidence that there is a group of infants with OBPI in whom the assessment of the risk/benefit ratio for surgical versus nonsurgical treatment is not evident. These infants reside within what the authors have called the GZ. Based on their results, a guideline was derived to assist clinicians working with infants with OBPI to navigate the GZ.