Decomposing variation in dairy profitability: the impact of output, inputs, prices, labour and management

Identifying strategies to enhance the milking and operator efficiency of herringbone and rotary parlor systems in Ireland

International trends of increasing dairy herd sizes coupled with scarcity of labor has necessitated the enhancement of labor efficiency for dairy production systems. This study quantified the effects of infrastructure, automation, and management practices on the milking and operator efficiency of herringbone and rotary parlors used on pasture-based farms in Ireland. Data from 592 milkings across 26 farms (16 herringbones and 10 rotaries) was used. The metrics of cows milked per hour (cows/h), cows milked per operator per hour (cows/h per operator) and liters of milk harvested per hour (L/h) described milking efficiency. The metrics of total process time per cow (TPT, s/cow), milk process time per cow (MPT, s/cow), work routine time (WRT, s/cow), cluster time (CT, s/cluster), and attachment time per cow (ATC, s/cow) described operator efficiency. Automations investigated were backing gates, cluster flush, plant wash, cluster removers (ACRs), feeders, entry gates, rapid-exit, and teat spray. Additional operator presence at milking was also investigated. Herringbone and rotary parlors were assigned to quartiles from their cows/h per operator values to examine infrastructure, automations, and management practices variations. Fourth quartile herringbones based on cows/h per operator values (Q4) averaged 93 cows/h per operator using average system sizes of 24 clusters with 5 parlor automations. Q4 rotaries averaged 164 cows/h per operator using average system sizes of 47 clusters and an average CT of 13 s/cluster. Cows/h per operator values for Q4 herringbone and rotary parlors were 82% and 54% higher, respectively, than values observed on Q1 parlors, indicating the considerable potential to improve efficiency. To determine if infrastructure, automations, or additional operators at milking significantly affected operator efficiencies, general linear mixed models were developed. For parlor infrastructure, additional clusters had greater significance on operator efficiencies (MPT) for herringbones (-1.3 s/cow) as opposed to rotaries (-0.2 s/cow). Hence, increases in system size was likely to result in improved efficiencies for herringbones but less so for rotaries. For automations, ACRs significantly reduced herringbone TPT, CT, and WRT values by 13.3 s/cow, 18.9 s/cluster, and 32.6 s/cow, respectively, whereas rapid-exit significantly lowered CT by 18.6 s/cluster. We found no significant effect on rotary TPT, MPT, CT, or WRT values from the use of automatic teat sprayers. An additional operator at milking was found to significantly reduce herringbone TPT but not MPT or CT. For rotaries, a second operator had no significant effect on TPT, MPT, CT, or WRT values. We documented strong negative correlations between operator efficiencies (TPT, MPT) and milking efficiency (cows/h) for both herringbone (-0.91, -0.84) and rotaries (-0.98, -0.89). Strong negative correlations between the herringbone automation count and TPT (-0.80), MPT (-0.72), and CT (-0.75) suggested highly automated parlors were likely to achieve greater operator efficiencies than less automated parlors. The strong negative correlation (-0.81) between rotary milking efficiency (cows/h) and CT suggested lower CT values (i.e., rotation speed) resulted in increased milking efficiency. In conclusion, our study quantified the effects of parlor infrastructure, automation, and management practices on the milking and operator efficiency of herringbone and rotary parlors.

The factors contributing to better workplaces for farmers on pasture-based dairy farms

Herd size expansion, combined with the reduced availability of people to work on farms, has led to an increased focus on techniques that can improve dairy farm social sustainability. Effective work organization is one such entity, which could influence farm social sustainability; focusing on having a productive, flexible and standardized farm workload. The objective of this study was to examine the factors that contribute to better workplaces for the farmer using a survey of representative pasture-based dairy farms in Ireland. Potential contributing factors to better workplaces for farmers were identified, namely; farm and farmer characteristics, working day structure, farmer attitudes, farm facilities, labor efficient practices and human resource management practices. A survey was completed by 313 Irish dairy farmers between 20 November and 3 January 2019 to capture relevant information. One proxy indicator was selected to represent each of productivity, flexibility and standardization within the workplace, and each of the 313 farms were categorized into quartiles based on their ranking for these 3 indicators (1 = most effective quartile to 4 = least effective quartile). The average farmer that completed the survey was 51 years old, milked 125 cows, reported to work 69.6 h/ week, take 10.3 d of holidays/ year and had a finish time of 19:52 in spring. The quartile of farms with the most effective farmer workplace reported reduced hours worked per week (58.6 v 82.6 h per week), more holiday days (16.6 v 5.1 d) and weekends off (8.3 v 2.4) per year, and earlier finish times (18:41 v 21:14 in spring) compared with the least effective quartile. Similarly, the most effective farms reported better facilities, and greater implementation of labor efficient and human resource management practices compared with the least effective farms. The most effective quartile for farmer workplace effectiveness were more positive about the industry's potential to offer an effective work-life balance, would be more likely to encourage young people to pursue careers in dairy, and had more positive attitudes toward attracting and retaining workers compared with the least effective quartile. The study highlighted the range of factors contributing to more effective workplaces for farmers, indicating scope for improvement on many farms, and challenges across all farms when compared with other industries in the case of some indicators (e.g., time-off). The results can support the continued extension of concepts regarding work organization to assist farms in alleviating social sustainability challenges; highlighting the differentiating factors between the most and least effective farmer workplaces.

Survey of farm, parlour and milking management, parlour technologies, SCC control strategies and farmer demographics on Irish dairy farms

BACKGROUND

This cross-sectional study describes a survey designed to fill knowledge gaps regarding farm management practices, parlour management practices and implemented technologies, milking management practices, somatic cell count (SCC) control strategies, farmer demographics and attitudes around SCC management on a sample of Irish dairy farms.

RESULTS

We categorized 376 complete responses by herd size quartile and calving pattern. The average respondent herd was 131 cows with most (82.2%) operating a seasonal calving system. The median monthly bulk tank somatic cell count for seasonal calving systems was 137,000 cells/ml (range 20,000 - 1,269,000 cells/ml), 170,000 cells/ml for split-calving systems (range 46,000 - 644,000 cells/ml) and 186,000 cells/ml for 'other' herds (range 20,000 - 664,000 cells/ml). The most common parlour types were swing-over herringbones (59.1%) and herringbones with recording jars (22.2%). The average number of units across herringbone parlours was 15, 49 in rotary parlours and two boxes on automatic milking system (AMS) farms. The most common parlour technologies were in-parlour feeding systems (84.5%), automatic washers on the bulk tank (72.8%), automatic cluster removers (57.9%), and entrance or exit gates controlled from the parlour pit (52.2%). Veterinary professionals, farming colleagues and processor milk quality advisors were the most commonly utilised sources of advice for SCC management (by 76.9%, 50.0% and 39.2% of respondents respectively).

CONCLUSIONS

In this study, we successfully utilised a national survey to quantify farm management practices, parlour management practices and technology adoption levels, milking management practices, SCC control strategies and farmer demographics on 376 dairy farms in the Republic of Ireland. Rotary and AMS parlours had the most parlour technologies of any parlour type. Technology add-ons were generally less prevalent on farms with smaller herds. Despite finding areas for improvement with regard to frequency of liner changes, glove-wearing practices and engagement with bacteriology of milk samples, we also found evidence of high levels of documentation of mastitis treatments and high use of post-milking teat disinfection. We discovered that Irish dairy farmers are relatively content in their careers but face pressures regarding changes to the legislation around prudent antimicrobial use in their herds.

Longitudinal measures of labour time-use on pasture-based dairy farms, incorporating the impact of specific facilities and technologies

The seasonal workload on pasture-based dairy farms, combined with increased herd sizes, have led to an increased focus on farm labour time-use and techniques that can reduce farm labour demand. The objective of this study was to measure labour time-use over time on a sample of pasture-based dairy farms and examine the impact that specific facilities and technologies could have on labour demand in real farm situations. Fifty-seven farms completed two labour time-use studies in spring 2019 and 2021 (1st February to 30th April). Farm labour input was recorded on one day each week during the study period. Results showed that farm labour input increased by 3% (1 364 to 1 403 h) between spring 2019 and 2021 and farm labour efficiency improved by 7% (10.7 to 10.0 h/cow), while herd size increased by 10% (145 to 160 cows). Case study farms that made substantial changes to the milking and calf care facilities and practices (between 2019 and 2021) were selected to examine the impact of these changes on labour demand and efficiency. The four case study farms that implemented new milking parlours or added additional milking units improved their milking efficiency by 15% (2.89 to 2.45 h/cow per farm) and reduced milking labour input by 15% (402 to 342 h per farm). Seventeen farms made substantial calf care changes such as constructing a new calf shed, installing an automatic calf feeder, selling male calves and contract rearing heifer calves preweaning. These farms had on average 26 more cows per farm in 2021 than in 2019 (increasing from 137 to 163 cows), but calf care labour input declined by 5% (240 to 228 h per farm) and calf care labour efficiency improved by 16% (1.83 to 1.53 h/cow per farm). Of these farms, the largest improvement was observed on the eight farms that installed automatic calf feeders, where calf care labour efficiency improved by 23% (1.76 to 1.36 h/cow). Results of this study contribute to our understanding of labour use on pasture-based dairy farms and how it can change over time. The real-time on-farm case studies can reassure farmers of the positive benefits that the facilities and technologies outlined in this study can have on labour efficiency.

In Vitro Anthelmintic Effect of Ferula assa-foetida Hydroalcoholic Extract Against Flukes of Fasciola hepatica and Dicrocoelium dendriticum

Background: Dicrocoeliasis and fascioliasis are foodborne parasitic diseases of the biliary tract, resulting from Dicrocoelium dendriticum and Fasciola hepatica causing extensive financial losses and serious health problems in ruminants. Due to low-performance medications, drug delivery is a tremendous project to improve interventions available for these diseases. Objectives: This study aimed to determine the anthelmintic properties of Ferula assa-foetida extract against F. hepatica and D. dendriticum using in vitro assay. Methods: The effects of diverse concentrations of F. assa-foetida extract (400 - 1000 µg/mL) for 12-24 hours were examined for the treatment of D. dendriticum and F. hepatica. The anthelmintic efficacies were evaluated using scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The MTT assay was carried out to evaluate the cell viability of all cells in culture media. Results: The SEM images of treated worms by F. assa-foetida extract (200 µg/mL) confirmed excessive damage, which included an entire lack of sensory papillae and destruction of distinguished network structures and tegument vesicles. Variables of duration and concentration presented a considerable effect on both the mortality rate and the anthelmintic properties of F. assa-foetida; accordingly, as the time and concentration increased, the mortality rate became higher. Based on the MTT assay, the toxicity of F. assa-foetida at 800 µg/mL concentration was 8.7%. Therefore, it can be argued that F. assa-foetida had anthelmintic properties. Conclusions: This is the first study that evaluated the impact of F. assa-foetida on liver flukes of D. dendriticum and F. hepatica. Therefore, it paved the way for further studies on the control of those trematodes. It is recommended to document and look into the indigenous understanding of viable medicinal plants to provide evidence for their use.

The impact of work organisation on the work life of people on pasture-based dairy farms

The seasonal workload combined with increased dairy herd sizes and a declining workforce have created social sustainability challenges for pasture-based dairy farms. Effective work organisation can build productive capacity that may have a positive impact on this scenario. Our objective was to develop a framework to characterise and examine the effect of work organisation on the working situations of the people involved in a sample of 55 pasture-based dairy farms in Ireland. We conceptualised that effective work organisation on a dairy farm could be considered as a system that is efficient from a labour input perspective, resulting in a profitable farming system with outcomes of good operator well-being, health and safety, and quality of life. A literature review established efficiency & productivity, flexibility and standardisation as our three characteristics of work organisation. Using data from an existing labour time-use study completed from the 1st February to 30th June 2019, we aimed to test the veracity of these work organisation characteristics in the Irish pasture-based dairy system. Two proxy indicators were selected to represent each of the three work organisation characteristics, and each of the 55 farms were categorised into quartiles based on their ranking for these six indicators (1 = most effective quartile to 4 = least effective quartile). The most and least effective quartiles of farms for work organisation showed similar levels of farm labour input and labour efficiency. Farmers in the most effective work organisation quartile were working 51.2 h/week from February to June compared with 70.0 h/week for farmers in the least effective quartile, which was attributed to later start times, earlier finish times, and more time at non-farm activity. Farms achieving effective work organisation had a labour-efficient system with relatively low farmer working hours. Extension of the work organisation concept to other farms could improve their labour situation and aid in alleviating some of the key quality of life challenges faced by dairy farmers.

A systematic review and meta-analysis on the prevalence, distribution and nematode species diversity in small ruminants: a Nigerian perspective

Despite the global projections that agriculture will have to feed an additional 3 billion of the world's population in the nearest future, the global trends and negative impacts of nematodes on livestock productivity are still on the increase. Here, we reported the burden of gastrointestinal nematodes in small ruminants in Nigeria. Six thousand, five hundred and eighty one of the 13,259 small ruminants reported in 40 eligible studies across 18 Nigerian States were infected with at least one nematode species, yielding an overall pooled prevalence (PP) of 58.3% (95% CI 48.8, 67.2). Regional PP varied significantly (P < 0.001) and ranged between 19.5 (95% CI 5.8, 48.7) and 83.7% (95% CI 68.5, 92.3). Seasonal PP was higher in the dry (Prev: 56.5%, 95% CI 34.2, 76.4) than the rainy (Prev: 43.2%, 95% CI 26.7, 61.3) season. Haemonchus species were the most prevalent 21.3% while, Trichuris ovis and Strongyloides species had the widest geographic distribution. Several species of nematodes of small ruminants are highly prevalent in Nigeria. An all-inclusive approach involving public education and standardised management practices that involve adequate hygiene and sanitation, strategic and prophylactic use of anthelmintics, rotational grazing and the control of arthropod intermediate hosts will reduce the economic losses due to these parasites and curtail possible transmission to humans.

Dairy producer perceptions of the Farmers Assuring Responsible Management (FARM) Animal Care Program

Dairy farms producing 98% of the US milk supply participate in the Farmers Assuring Responsible Management (FARM) Animal Care Program. Producers who sell milk to cooperatives or processors participating in FARM must follow program standards. The objectives of this study were to assess producer perceptions about the knowledge, experience, and value of FARM and to determine whether perceptions differ based on demographics. A concurrent triangulation design was implemented through collecting quantitative and qualitative data using a 30-question survey instrument. Quantitative questions aimed to address project objectives, and qualitative data were provided through 1 open-ended survey question that asked participants what they thought the main goal of the FARM program was. Participants offered additional feedback through providing text in comment boxes, writing on the back of the survey, or writing a separate letter and returning it with their survey. Quantitative data were analyzed using principal components analysis and modeling, and qualitative data were analyzed through thematic analysis. Dairy producers from cooperatives or processors that participate in the FARM program were recruited via electronic and postal mail. A total of 487 respondents from 40 states completed the survey. Of the survey participants, 414 (85.0%) answered the open-ended question and 190 (39.0%) provided additional qualitative feedback. Thematic analysis revealed 5 main themes: distrust of program, producers on the defense, anger, efficiency, and nostalgia. Of respondents, 73.6% reported being knowledgeable about the FARM Animal Care Program. Greater level of formal education and larger herd size were associated with greater producer knowledge. More dairy producer input in the revisions of FARM was identified as a need by 83.3% of respondents. Although 89.3% of respondents reported positive experiences with evaluations and relationships with evaluators, 45.6% did not think that the program had value overall. Respondent age was positively associated with perceived value of FARM. Respondent age was also significant in determining the reasons why FARM was considered to be important. Results indicate that to increase buy-in and positive perceptions from producers, future versions of FARM should solicit producer input during the development of program standards, target specific producer demographics for program promotion, and address perceived communication deficits and program inequalities. Findings from this study can be used to inform future versions of the program.

Factors influencing economic efficiency of milk production among small-scale dairy farms in Mukurweini, Nyeri County, Kenya

This paper highlights the factors likely to influence the economic efficiency of small-scale dairy farms in Mukurweini, Nyeri County, Kenya. A total of 91 small-scale dairy farms previously involved in a nutritional training in 2013 were administered with semi-structured questionnaires. Data collected were entered into SPSS and FRONTIER 4.1 was used to compute the technical, allocative and economic efficiency scores for each farm. The scores were then regressed against a set of variables using the Tobit model in STATA to determine the factors associated with the scores. The average age of the household members involved in dairy farming, household size, labour, cost of concentrates and size of land owned had a negative significant influence on economic efficiency. It was concluded that lowering costs, proper utilization of hired labour and intensive use of the available land for dairy farming would lead to an increase in economic efficiency. The study recommends subsidized prices for concentrates, intensive dairy farming, minimization of hired labour and organization of dairy training and workshops in order to increase the efficiency of milk production in small-scale farms in the study area and other parts of Kenya with similar agro-ecological and cultural conditions.

An examination of the effects of labor efficiency on the profitability of grass-based, seasonal-calving dairy farms

The seasonality of grass-based, seasonal-calving dairy systems results in disproportionately higher labor demands during the spring, when cows are calving, than in the remaining seasons. This study aimed to (1) examine the relationship between labor efficiency and profitability; (2) investigate strategies to reduce the hours worked per day by the farmer, family, and farm staff in the spring by having certain tasks outsourced; and (3) quantify the economic implications of those strategies. Data from an existing labor efficiency study on Irish dairy farms were used in conjunction with economic performance data from the farms. Tasks that required the highest level of farm labor per day in the spring were identified and hypothetical strategies to reduce the farm hours worked per day were examined. A stochastic budgetary simulation model was then used to examine the economic implications of employing these strategies and the effects of their use in conjunction with a proportionate increase in cow numbers that would leave the hours worked per day unchanged. The strategies were to use contractors to perform calf rearing, machinery work, or milking. Contracting out milking resulted in the greatest reduction in hours worked per day (5.6 h/d) followed by calf rearing (2.7 h/d) and machinery work (2 h/d). Reducing the hours worked per day by removing those tasks had slight (i.e., <5%) negative effects on profitability; however, maintaining the farm hours worked per day while utilizing the same strategies and increasing herd sizes resulted in profitable options. The most profitable scenario was for farms to increase herd size while contracting out milking.

Helminths of veterinary and zoonotic importance in Nigerian ruminants: a 46-year meta-analysis (1970-2016) of their prevalence and distribution

BACKGROUND

The livestock industry plays a vital role in the economy of Nigeria. It serves as a major source of income and livelihood for majority of Nigerians who are rural settlers and contributes about 5.2% to the National Gross Domestic Product (GDP). Helminths however, cause economic losses due to reductions in milk production, weight gain, fertility and carcass quality. Zoonotic helminths of livestock origin cause health problems in humans.

METHODS

Using the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines, the prevalence and distribution of helminths of veterinary and zoonotic importance in Nigerian ruminants were determined in a meta-analysis of data published between 1970 and 2016. Data were stratified based on regions, hosts, study periods, sample sizes and study types while helminths were phylogenetically grouped into cestodes, nematodes and trematodes.

RESULTS

Data from 44 studies reported across 19 Nigerian states revealed an overall pooled prevalence estimate (PPE) of 7.48% (95% CI: 7.38-7.57) for helminths of veterinary and zoonotic importance from a total of 320 208 ruminants. We observed a significant variation (P < 0.001) between the PPEs range of 1.90% (95% CI: 1.78-2.02) and 60.98% (95% CI: 58.37-63.55) reported across different strata. High heterogeneity (99.78, 95% CI: 7.38-7.57) was observed. Strongyloides papillosus was the most prevalent (Prev: 32.02%, 95% CI: 31.01-33.11), while, Fasciola gigantica had the widest geographical distribution.

CONCLUSIONS

Helminths of veterinary and zoonotic importance are prevalent in ruminants and well distributed across Nigeria. Our findings show that helminths of ruminants may also be possible causes of morbidity in humans and economic losses in the livestock industry in Nigeria. High heterogeneity was observed within studies and the different strata. Good agricultural practices on farms, standard veterinary meat inspection and adequate hygiene and sanitation in abattoirs, farms and livestock markets need to be implemented in Nigeria in order to reduce the economic, public health and veterinary threats due to these helminths.

Metrics and methods for characterizing dairy farm intensification using farm survey data

Evaluation of agricultural intensification requires comprehensive analysis of trends in farm performance across physical and socio-economic aspects, which may diverge across farm types. Typical reporting of economic indicators at sectorial or the “average farm” level does not represent farm diversity and provides limited insight into the sustainability of specific intensification pathways. Using farm business data from a total of 7281 farm survey observations of English and Welsh dairy farms over a 14-year period we calculate a time series of 16 key performance indicators (KPIs) pertinent to farm structure, environmental and socio-economic aspects of sustainability. We then apply principle component analysis and model-based clustering analysis to identify statistically the number of distinct dairy farm typologies for each year of study, and link these clusters through time using multidimensional scaling. Between 2001 and 2014, dairy farms have largely consolidated and specialized into two distinct clusters: more extensive farms relying predominantly on grass, with lower milk yields but higher labour intensity, and more intensive farms producing more milk per cow with more concentrate and more maize, but lower labour intensity. There is some indication that these clusters are converging as the extensive cluster is intensifying slightly faster than the intensive cluster, in terms of milk yield per cow and use of concentrate feed. In 2014, annual milk yields were 6,835 and 7,500 l/cow for extensive and intensive farm types, respectively, whilst annual concentrate feed use was 1.3 and 1.5 tonnes per cow. For several KPIs such as milk yield the mean trend across all farms differed substantially from the extensive and intensive typologies mean. The indicators and analysis methodology developed allows identification of distinct farm types and industry trends using readily available survey data. The identified groups allow the accurate evaluation of the consequences of the reduction in dairy farm numbers and intensification at national and international scales.

Invited review: Changes in the dairy industry affecting dairy cattle health and welfare

The dairy industry in the developed world has undergone profound changes over recent decades. In this paper, we present an overview of some of the most important recent changes in the dairy industry that affect health and welfare of dairy cows, as well as the science associated with these changes. Additionally, knowledge gaps are identified where research is needed to guide the dairy industry through changes that are occurring now or that we expect will occur in the future. The number of farms has decreased considerably, whereas herd size has increased. As a result, an increasing number of dairy farms depend on hired (nonfamily) labor. Regular professional communication and establishment of farm-specific protocols are essential to minimize human errors and ensure consistency of practices. Average milk production per cow has increased, partly because of improvements in nutrition and management but also because of genetic selection for milk production. Adoption of new technologies (e.g., automated calf feeders, cow activity monitors, and automated milking systems) is accelerating. However, utilization of the data and action lists that these systems generate for health and welfare of livestock is still largely unrealized, and more training of dairy farmers, their employees, and their advisors is necessary. Concurrently, to remain competitive and to preserve their social license to operate, farmers are increasingly required to adopt increased standards for food safety and biosecurity, become less reliant on the use of antimicrobials and hormones, and provide assurances regarding animal welfare. Partly because of increasing herd size but also in response to animal welfare regulations in some countries, the proportion of dairy herds housed in tiestalls has decreased considerably. Although in some countries access to pasture is regulated, in countries that traditionally practiced seasonal grazing, fewer farmers let their dairy cows graze in the summer. The proportion of organic dairy farms has increased globally and, given the pressure to decrease the use of antimicrobials and hormones, conventional farms may be able to learn from well-managed organic farms. The possibilities of using milk for disease diagnostics and monitoring are considerable, and dairy herd improvement associations will continue to expand the number of tests offered to diagnose diseases and pregnancy. Genetic and genomic selection for increased resistance to disease offers substantial potential but requires collection of additional phenotypic data. There is every expectation that changes in the dairy industry will be further accentuated and additional novel technologies and different management practices will be adopted in the future.

Chasing helminths and their economic impact on farmed ruminants

Global agriculture will be required to intensify production from a shrinking natural resource base. Helminth infections of ruminants are a major constraint on efficient livestock production. The current challenge is to develop diagnostic methods that detect the production impact of helminth infections on farms in order to target control measures and contribute to the global challenge of preserving food security. We review here our understanding of the effects of helminth infections and control practices on productivity and the diagnostic tools that can inform on this. By combining advances in helminth laboratory diagnostics and animal health economics, sustainable management of helminth infections can be integrated into the whole-farm economic context.

Diet effects on urine composition of cattle and N2O emissions

Ruminant production contributes to emissions of nitrogen (N) to the environment, principally ammonia (NH3), nitrous oxide (N2O) and di-nitrogen (N2) to air, nitrate (NO3 -) to groundwater and particulate N to surface waters. Variation in dietary N intake will particularly affect excretion of urinary N, which is much more vulnerable to losses than is faecal N. Our objective is to review dietary effects on the level and form of N excreted in cattle urine, as well as its consequences for emissions of N2O. The quantity of N excreted in urine varies widely. Urinary N excretion, in particular that of urea N, is decreased upon reduction of dietary N intake or an increase in the supply of energy to the rumen microorganisms and to the host animal itself. Most of the N in urine (from 50% to well over 90%) is present in the form of urea. Other nitrogenous components include purine derivatives (PD), hippuric acid, creatine and creatinine. Excretion of PD is related to rumen microbial protein synthesis, and that of hippuric acid to dietary concentration of degradable phenolic acids. The N concentration of cattle urine ranges from 3 to 20 g/l. High-dietary mineral levels increase urine volume and lead to reduced urinary N concentration as well as reduced urea concentration in plasma and milk. In lactating dairy cattle, variation in urine volume affects the relationship between milk urea and urinary N excretion, which hampers the use of milk urea as an accurate indicator of urinary N excretion. Following its deposition in pastures or in animal houses, ubiquitous microorganisms in soil and waters transform urinary N components into ammonium (NH4 +), and thereafter into NO3 - and ultimately in N2 accompanied with the release of N2O. Urinary hippuric acid, creatine and creatinine decompose more slowly than urea. Hippuric acid may act as a natural inhibitor of N2O emissions, but inhibition conditions have not been defined properly yet. Environmental and soil conditions at the site of urine deposition or manure application strongly influence N2O release. Major dietary strategies to mitigating N2O emission from cattle operations include reducing dietary N content or increasing energy content, and increasing dietary mineral content to increase urine volume. For further reduction of N2O emission, an integrated animal nutrition and excreta management approach is required.